a b s t r a c tRecent methodological advancements in microscopy and DNA sequencing-based methods provide unprecedented new insights into the spatio-temporal relationships between chromatin and nuclear machineries. We discuss a model of the underlying functional nuclear organization derived mostly from electron and super-resolved fluorescence microscopy studies. It is based on two spatially co-aligned, active and inactive nuclear compartments (ANC and INC). The INC comprises the compact, transcriptionally inactive core of chromatin domain clusters (CDCs). The ANC is formed by the transcriptionally active periphery of CDCs, called the perichromatin region (PR), and the interchromatin compartment (IC). The IC is connected to nuclear pores and serves nuclear import and export functions. The ANC is the major site of RNA synthesis. It is highly enriched in epigenetic marks for transcriptionally competent chromatin and RNA Polymerase II. Marks for silent chromatin are enriched in the INC. Multi-scale cross-correlation spectroscopy suggests that nuclear architecture resembles a random obstacle network for diffusing proteins. An increased dwell time of proteins and protein complexes within the ANC may help to limit genome scanning by factors or factor complexes to DNA exposed within the ANC.

BackgroundA Xist RNA decorated Barr body is the structural hallmark of the compacted inactive X territory in female mammals. Using super-resolution three-dimensional structured illumination microscopy (3D-SIM) and quantitative image analysis, we compared its ultrastructure with active chromosome territories (CTs) in human and mouse somatic cells, and explored the spatio-temporal process of Barr body formation at onset of inactivation in early differentiating mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs).ResultsWe demonstrate that all CTs are composed of structurally linked chromatin domain clusters (CDCs). In active CTs the periphery of CDCs harbors low-density chromatin enriched with transcriptionally competent markers, called the perichromatin region (PR). The PR borders on a contiguous channel system, the interchromatin compartment (IC), which starts at nuclear pores and pervades CTs. We propose that the PR and macromolecular complexes in IC channels together form the transcriptionally permissive active nuclear compartment (ANC). The Barr body differs from active CTs by a partially collapsed ANC with CDCs coming significantly closer together, although a rudimentary IC channel system connected to nuclear pores is maintained. Distinct Xist RNA foci, closely adjacent to the nuclear matrix scaffold attachment factor-A (SAF-A) localize throughout Xi along the rudimentary ANC. In early differentiating ESCs initial Xist RNA spreading precedes Barr body formation, which occurs concurrent with the subsequent exclusion of RNA polymerase II (RNAP II). Induction of a transgenic autosomal Xist RNA in a male ESC triggers the formation of an ‘autosomal Barr body’ with less compacted chromatin and incomplete RNAP II exclusion.Conclusions3D-SIM provides experimental evidence for profound differences between the functional architecture of transcriptionally active CTs and the Barr body. Basic structural features of CT organization such as CDCs and IC channels are however still recognized, arguing against a uniform compaction of the Barr body at the nucleosome level. The localization of distinct Xist RNA foci at boundaries of the rudimentary ANC may be considered as snap-shots of a dynamic interaction with silenced genes. Enrichment of SAF-A within Xi territories and its close spatial association with Xist RNA suggests their cooperative function for structural organization of Xi.

The histone variant macroH2A generally associates with transcriptionally inert chromatin; however, the factors that regulate its chromatin incorporation remain elusive. Here, we identify the SWI/SNF helicase ATRX (a-thalassemia/ MR, X-linked) as a novel macroH2A-interacting protein.Unlike its role in assisting H3.3 chromatin deposition, ATRX acts as a negative regulator of macroH2A's chromatin association. In human erythroleukemic cells deficient for ATRX, macroH2A accumulates at the HBA gene cluster on the subtelomere of chromosome 16, coinciding with the loss of a-globin expression. Collectively, our results implicate deregulation of macroH2A's distribution as a contributing factor to the a-thalassemia phenotype of ATRX syndrome. The replacement of canonical histones with histone variants contributes to the dynamic nature of chromatin.Due to amino acid differences and, in turn, unique posttranslational modifications, histone variants can alter nucleosome structure, stability, and binding of effector proteins. Histone variants have unique genomic localization patterns, and thus specialized roles such as regulating gene expression or chromosome segregation during cell division . Therefore, the differential genomic incorporation of histone variants directly impacts critical cellular functions.The histone variant macroH2A (mH2A) is a vertebratespecific member of the H2A family and is unusual due to the presence of a C-terminal macro domain (Pehrson and Fried 1992). Two different genes encode mH2A1 and mH2A2 (H2AFY and H2AFY2, respectively), and two splice forms of mH2A1 exist: mH2A1.1 and mH2A1.2 (Costanzi and Pehrson 2001). mH2A is abundant in heterochromatin, including senescence-associated heterochromatic foci (SAHF) and the inactivated X chromosome (Xi) (Costanzi and Pehrson 1998;Zhang et al. 2005). In vitro studies suggest that the macro domain sterically hinders access of transcription factors to DNA, while mH2A's L1 loop produces inflexible nucleosomes (Angelov et al. 2003;Chakravarthy et al. 2005).Our group has recently demonstrated a role for mH2A isoforms in suppressing melanoma progression, and others have linked mH2A expression or its splice patterns to breast and lung cancer (Sporn et al. 2009;Kapoor et al. 2010;Novikov et al. 2011). However, the factors that regulate the association of mH2A with chromatin remain obscure. Therefore, identifying regulators of the incorporation of histone variants at distinct genomic loci is key to understanding how chromatin domains are established and maintained and how these may go awry in disease.A second group of factors contributing to chromatin dynamics are ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complexes that rearrange or mobilize nucleosomes. Deregulation of members of the SWI/SNF family is implicated in various cancers and mental retardation (MR) syndromes, including ATRX (a-thalassemia/MR, X-linked), (Wilson and Roberts 2011). Mutations in ATRX, predominantly found in the H3K9me3-binding ADD (ATRX-DNMT3-DNMT3L) and/or helicase domains, are associated with ATRX sy...

In female mammals, one of the two X chromosomes is transcriptionally silenced to equalize X-linked gene dosage relative to XY males, a process termed X chromosome inactivation. Mechanistically, this is thought to occur via directed recruitment of chromatin modifying factors by the master regulator, X-inactive specific transcript (Xist) RNA, which localizes in cis along the entire length of the chromosome. A well-studied example is the recruitment of polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), for which there is evidence of a direct interaction involving the PRC2 proteins Enhancer of zeste 2 (Ezh2) and Supressor of zeste 12 (Suz12) and the A-repeat region located at the 5′ end of Xist RNA. In this study, we have analyzed Xist-mediated recruitment of PRC2 using two approaches, microarraybased epigenomic mapping and superresolution 3D structured illumination microscopy. Making use of an ES cell line carrying an inducible Xist transgene located on mouse chromosome 17, we show that 24 h after synchronous induction of Xist expression, acquired PRC2 binding sites map predominantly to generich regions, notably within gene bodies. Paradoxically, these new sites of PRC2 deposition do not correlate with Xist-mediated gene silencing. The 3D structured illumination microscopy was performed to assess the relative localization of PRC2 proteins and Xist RNA. Unexpectedly, we observed significant spatial separation and absence of colocalization both in the inducible Xist transgene ES cell line and in normal XX somatic cells. Our observations argue against direct interaction between Xist RNA and PRC2 proteins and, as such, prompt a reappraisal of the mechanism for PRC2 recruitment in X chromosome inactivation.

Three-dimensional structured illumination microscopy (3D-SIM) has opened up new possibilities to study nuclear architecture at the ultrastructural level down to the ~100 nm range. We present first results and assess the potential using 3D-SIM in combination with 3D fluorescence in situ hybridization (3D-FISH) for the topographical analysis of defined nuclear targets. Our study also deals with the concern that artifacts produced by FISH may counteract the gain in resolution. We address the topography of DAPI-stained DNA in nuclei before and after 3D-FISH, nuclear pores and the lamina, chromosome territories, chromatin domains, and individual gene loci. We also look at the replication patterns of chromocenters and the topographical relationship of Xist-RNA within the inactive X-territory. These examples demonstrate that an appropriately adapted 3D-FISH/3D-SIM approach preserves key characteristics of the nuclear ultrastructure and that the gain in information obtained by 3D-SIM yields new insights into the functional nuclear organization.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization on three-dimensionally preserved cells (3D-FISH) is an efficient tool to analyze the subcellular localization and spatial arrangement of targeted DNA sequences and RNA transcripts at the single cell level. 3D reconstructions from serial optical sections obtained by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) have long been considered the gold standard for 3D-FISH analyses. Recent super-resolution techniques circumvent the diffraction-limit of optical resolution and have defined a new state-of-the-art in bioimaging. Three-dimensional structured illumination microscopy (3D-SIM) represents one of these technologies. Notably, 3D-SIM renders an eightfold improved volumetric resolution over conventional imaging, and allows the simultaneous visualization of differently labeled target structures. These features make this approach highly attractive for the analysis of spatial relations and substructures of nuclear targets that escape detection by conventional light microscopy. Here, we focus on the application of 3D-SIM for the visualization of subnuclear 3D-FISH preparations. In comparison with conventional fluorescence microscopy, the quality of 3D-SIM data is dependent to a much greater extent on the optimal sample preparation, labeling and acquisition conditions. We describe typical problems encountered with super-resolution imaging of in situ hybridizations in mammalian tissue culture cells and provide optimized DNA-/(RNA)-FISH protocols including combinations with immunofluorescence staining (Immuno-FISH) and DNA replication labeling using click chemistry.

Nuclear organization of chromatin is an important level of genome regulation with positional changes of genes occurring during reprogramming. Inherent variability of biological specimens, wide variety of sample preparation and imaging conditions, though pose significant challenges to data analysis and comparison. Here, we describe the development of a computational image analysis toolbox overcoming biological variability hurdles by a novel single cell randomizing normalization. We performed a comparative analysis of the relationship between spatial positioning of pluripotency genes with their genomic activity and determined the degree of similarity between fibroblasts, induced pluripotent stem cells and embryonic stem cells. Our analysis revealed a preferred positioning of actively transcribed Sox2, Oct4 and Nanog away from the nuclear periphery, but not from pericentric heterochromatin. Moreover, in the silent state, we found no common nuclear localization for any of the genes. Our results suggest that the surrounding gene density hinders relocation from an internal nuclear position. Altogether, our data do not support the hypothesis that the nuclear periphery acts as a general transcriptional silencer, rather suggesting that internal nuclear localization is compatible with expression in pluripotent cells but not sufficient for expression in mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Thus, our computational approach enables comparative analysis of topological relationships in spite of stark morphological variability typical of biological data sets.

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