Summary Solid organ transplantation is a vital therapy for end stage diseases. Decades of research has established that the components of the adaptive immune system are critical for transplant rejection, but the role of the innate immune system in organ transplantation is just emerging. Accumulating evidence indicates that the innate immune system is activated at the time of organ implantation by the release of endogenous inflammatory triggers. This review discusses the nature of these triggers in organ transplantation and also potential mediators that may enhance inflammation resolution after organ implantation.

SummaryAging leads to a proinflammatory state within the vasculature without disease, yet whether this inflammatory state occurs during atherogenesis remains unclear. Here, we examined how aging impacts atherosclerosis using Ldlr −/− mice, an established murine model of atherosclerosis. We found that aged atherosclerotic Ldlr −/− mice exhibited enhanced atherogenesis within the aorta. Aging also led to increased LDL levels, elevated blood pressure on a low‐fat diet, and insulin resistance after a high‐fat diet (HFD). On a HFD, aging increased a monocytosis in the peripheral blood and enhanced macrophage accumulation within the aorta. When we conducted bone marrow transplant experiments, we found that stromal factors contributed to age‐enhanced atherosclerosis. To delineate these stromal factors, we determined that the vasculature exhibited an age‐enhanced inflammatory response consisting of elevated production of CCL‐2, osteopontin, and IL‐6 during atherogenesis. In addition, in vitro cultures showed that aging enhanced the production of osteopontin by vascular smooth muscle cells. Functionally, aged atherosclerotic aortas displayed higher monocyte chemotaxis than young aortas. Hence, our study has revealed that aging induces metabolic dysfunction and enhances vascular inflammation to promote a peripheral monocytosis and macrophage accumulation within the atherosclerotic aorta.

Rationale Early graft inflammation enhances both acute and chronic rejection of heart transplants, but it is unclear how this inflammation is initiated. Objective To identify specific inflammatory modulators and determine their underlying molecular mechanisms after cardiac transplantation. Methods and Results We used a murine heterotopic cardiac transplant model to identify inflammatory modulators of early graft inflammation. Unbiased mass spectrometric analysis of cardiac tissue before and up to 72 hours after transplantation revealed that 22 proteins including haptoglobin, a known anti-oxidant, are significantly upregulated in our grafts. Through the use of haptoglobin deficient mice, we show that 80% of haptoglobin deficient recipients treated with peri-operative administration of the costimulatory blocking agent CTLA4 immunoglobulin exhibited > 100 days survival of full major histocompatibility complex mismatched allografts, whereas all similarly treated wild type recipients rejected their transplants by 21 days post transplantation. We found that haptoglobin modifies the intra-allograft inflammatory milieu by enhancing levels of the inflammatory cytokine IL-6 and the chemokine MIP-2 but impair levels of the immunosuppressive cytokine IL-10. Haptoglobin also enhances dendritic cell graft recruitment and augments anti-donor T cell responses. Moreover, we confirmed that the protein is present in human cardiac allograft specimens undergoing acute graft rejection. Conclusions Our findings provide new insights into the mechanisms of inflammation after cardiac transplantation and suggest that, in contrast to its prior reported anti-oxidant function in vascular inflammation, haptoglobin is an enhancer of inflammation after cardiac transplantation. Haptoglobin may also be a key component in other sterile inflammatory conditions.

Organ transplantation in older people is increasing, but how aging impacts B cell responses to organ transplantation is unknown. Here, we show that the depletion of B cells with anti-CD20 antibodies has disparate effects depending on recipient age. In young murine recipients, anti-CD20 treatment impaired the ability of immune modulation to extend skin allograft survival. In contrast, anti-CD20 treatment extended allograft survival in aged recipients treated with immune modulation. Although regulatory B cell function and the numbers of marginal and follicular B cells were similar between age groups, a subpopulation of B cells, termed age-associated B cells (ABCs), accumulated upon aging. ABCs isolated from aged mice exhibited upregulation of CD73, CD80, CD106, and TLR2 and an increased capacity to augment T cell alloimmunity compared to ABCs from young mice. Importantly, ABCs from aged, but not young, mice impaired the ability of immune modulation to enhance allograft survival after adoptive transfer into young transplant recipients. Our study indicates that ABCs impair the immune regulation of allografts. Thus, recipient age needs to be considered when proposing B cell-depleting immune therapy.

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