We present a new initiative and its application, namely the design of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for producing protein crystals which are essential for determining high-resolution 3-D structures of proteins. MIPs, also referred to as ‘smart materials’ are made to contain cavities capable of rebinding protein, thus the fingerprint of the protein created on the polymer allows it to serve as an ideal template for crystal formation. We have shown that six different MIPs induced crystallization of nine proteins, yielding crystals in conditions that do not give crystals otherwise. The incorporation of MIPs in screening experiments gave rise to crystalline hits in 8- 10% of the trials for three target proteins. These hits would have been missed using other known nucleants. MIPs also facilitated the formation of large single crystals at metastable conditions for seven proteins. Moreover, the presence of MIPs has led to faster formation of crystals in all cases where crystals would appear eventually and to major improvement in diffraction in some cases. The MIPs were effective for their cognate proteins and also for other proteins, with size-compatibility being a likely criterion for efficacy. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) measurements demonstrated specific affinity between the MIPs cavities and a protein-functionalised AFM tip, corroborating our hypothesis that due to the recognition of proteins by the cavities, MIPs can act as nucleation inducing substrates (nucleants) by harnessing the proteins themselves as templates
Hydrogel-based molecularly imprinted polymers (HydroMIPs) were prepared for several proteins (haemoglobin, myoglobin and catalase) using a family of acrylamide-based monomers. Protein affinity towards the HydroMIPs was investigated under equilibrium conditions and over a range of concentrations using specific binding with Hill slope saturation profiles. We report HydroMIP binding affinities, in terms of equilibrium dissociation constants (Kd) within the micro-molar range (25 ± 4 μM, 44 ± 3 μM, 17 ± 2 μM for haemoglobin, myoglobin and catalase respectively within a polyacrylamide-based MIP). The extent of non-specific binding or cross-selectivity for non-target proteins has also been assessed. It is concluded that both selectivity and affinity for both cognate and non-cognate proteins towards the MIPs were dependent on the concentration and the complementarity of their structures and size. This is tentatively attributed to the formation of protein complexes during both the polymerisation and rebinding stages at high protein concentrations. We have used atomic force spectroscopy to characterize molecular interactions in the MIP cavities using protein-modified AFM tips. Attractive and repulsive force curves were obtained for the MIP and NIP (non-imprinted polymer) surfaces (under protein loaded or unloaded states). Our force data suggest that we have produced selective cavities for the template protein in the MIPs and we have been able to quantify the extent of non-specific protein binding on, for example, a non-imprinted polymer (NIP) control surface.
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