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Eastern Montana CollegeBillings, Montana t . . . Writing is a mode of language that involves the active manipulation of knowledge.Î n the last five years, a call has been issued for increased student writing in the schools. One reason for this, as both Emig (1977) and Haley-James (1982) have noted, is that writing can lead to a deeper understanding and improved mastery of a topic. That is because writing is a mode of language that involves the active manipulation of knowledge. Creating an original piece of writing requires students to analyze and synthesize information, focus their thoughts, and discover new relationships between bits of knowledge. Writing about something involves many of the thought processes teachers would like to foster in their students. Consequently, writing can be an instructional tool to promote learning in areas not usually associated with writing.For example, in the area of mathematics, writing can be used in a number of instructional ways. Some of these ways are: 1) having students write their own definitions, which gives students the chance to describe something in their own words; 2) having students translate symbols, formulas, and problems into words; 3) having students write the steps or processes involved in solving a problem; 4) having students make up and write their own story problems; and 5) having students write reports on important people and events in mathematics. In short, writing activities can be used to facilitate most aspects of students' mathematical development, from concept acquisition through problem solving abilities (Davison and Pearce, in press;Evans, 1984;Fennell and Ammon, 1985;Shaw, 1983).Writing in mathematics classes can run the gamut from relatively "low level" and passive tasks, such as copying and transcribing information, through more original writing activities, such as writing story problems. Even passive writing tasks can be mathematically valuable, because students exert more effort and the written information is available when their memories School Science and Mathematics Volume 88 (1) January 1988

Mathematics educators around the world have been addressing ways ofusing writing as a tool in mathematics classes. However there has been little systematic effort to establish a paradigm examining the effectiveness ofparticular activities. In this study, clinical methods were used to examine the effects ofusing certain writing activities. Prewriting, such as modelling or prompts, was seen to be essential. Regular, systematic writing over an extended period improved the students' performance in, and attitude towards, mathematics. Such promising results from classrooms will need to be validated under more generalisable conditions.

This study investigated teachers' perspectives of difficulties students have solving mathematical word problems and causes of those difficulties. Classroom practices and strategies teachers used in their attempts to foster student problem solving success were also studied. Participants were 70 second-fifth grade teachers from 42 different schools in a south central region of the United States. Data included analyses of interview transcriptions of teachers' responses. Findings from teachers' responses showed students' abilities to read and understand the problem was the most frequently cited difficulty; standardized testing and text difficulties were the most cited causes of those difficulties. Examination of teachers' responses to practices and strategies used in the classroom revealed the most cited practice was working the problem independently and the most cited strategy taught to students was to identify key words. This study revealed the significant role reading plays in teachers' perspectives of students' difficulties solving mathematical word problems and provided insight into practices and strategies teachers reported using to teach word problems. With attention to teacher-reported causes of difficulties and importance of this ability for students, this study also showed the impact state mandated testing has on instruction of mathematical word problems.

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The traditional view has been that students learn to write in English classes and to compute in mathematics classes and “never the twain shall meet.” Certainly little thought has been given to the idea that teachers of various subject areas, especially mathematics, should seek to have students engage in writing activities as part of their study of that area. In recent years, however, this position has been changing, and different authors have recommended increased writing about mathematics by students as a useful and valuable aspect of mathematics instruction (Burton 1985; Greenius 1983; Johnson 1983; Shaw 1983; Watson 1980).

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