[1] Most research on the global Si cycle has focused nearly exclusively on weathering or the oceanic Si cycle and has not explored the complexity of the terrestrial biogeochemical cycle. The global biogeochemical Si cycle is of great interest because of its impact on global CO 2 concentrations through the combined processes of weathering of silicate minerals and transfer of CO 2 from the atmosphere to the lithosphere. A sizable pool of Si is contained as accumulations of amorphous silica, or biogenic silica (BSi), in living tissues of growing plants, known as phytoliths, and, after decomposition of organic material, as remains in the soil. The annual fixation of phytolith silica ranges from 60-200 Tmol yr À1 and rivals that fixed in the oceanic biogeochemical cycle (240 Tmol yr À1). Internal recycling of the phytolith pool is intense with riverine fluxes of dissolved silicate to the oceans buffered by the terrestrial biogeochemical Si cycle, challenging the ability of weathering models to predict rates of weathering and consequently, changes in global climate. Consideration must be given to the influence of the terrestrial BSi pool on variations in the global biogeochemical Si cycle over geologic time and the influence man has had on modifying both the terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical cycles.

Eutrophication of the Baltic Sea has potentially increased the frequency and magnitude of cyanobacteria blooms. Eutrophication leads to increased sedimentation of organic material, increasing the extent of anoxic bottoms and subsequently increasing the internal phosphorus loading. In addition, the hypoxic water volume displays a negative relationship with the total dissolved inorganic nitrogen pool, suggesting greater overall nitrogen removal with increased hypoxia. Enhanced internal loading of phosphorus and the removal of dissolved inorganic nitrogen leads to lower nitrogen to phosphorus ratios, which are one of the main factors promoting nitrogenfixing cyanobacteria blooms. Because cyanobacteria blooms in the open waters of the Baltic Sea seem to be strongly regulated by internal processes, the effects of external nutrient reductions are scale-dependent. During longer time scales, reductions in external phosphorus load may reduce cyanobacteria blooms; however, on shorter time scales the internal phosphorus loading can counteract external phosphorus reductions. The coupled processes inducing internal loading, nitrogen removal, and the prevalence of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria can qualitatively be described as a potentially self-sustaining "vicious circle." To effectively reduce cyanobacteria blooms and overall signs of eutrophication, reductions in both nitrogen and phosphorus external loads appear essential.

Abstract. The incidence and intensity of hypoxic waters in coastal aquatic ecosystems has been expanding in recent decades coincident with eutrophication of the coastal zone. Worldwide, there is strong interest in reducing the size and duration of hypoxia in coastal waters, because hypoxia causes negative effects for many organisms and ecosystem processes. Although strategies to reduce hypoxia by decreasing nutrient loading are predicated on the assumption that this action would reverse eutrophication, recent analyses of historical data from European and North American coastal systems suggest little evidence for simple linear response trajectories. We review published parallel time-series data on hypoxia and loading rates for inorganic nutrients and labile organic matter to analyze trajectories of oxygen (O 2 ) response to nutrient loading. We also assess existing knowledge of physical and ecological factors regulating O 2 in coastal marine waters to facilitate analysis of hypoxia responses to reductions in nutrient (and/or organic matter) inputs. Of the 24 systems identified where concurrent time series of loading and O 2 were available, half displayed relatively clear and direct recoveries following remediation. We explored in detail 5 well-studied systems that have exhibited complex, non-linear responses to variations in loading, including apparent "regime shifts". A summary of these analyses suggests that O 2 conditions improved rapidly and linearly in systems where remediation focused on organic inputs from sewage treatment plants, which were the primary drivers of hypoxia. In larger more open systems where diffuse nutrient loads are more important in fueling O 2 depletion and where Correspondence to: W. M. Kemp (kemp@umces.edu) climatic influences are pronounced, responses to remediation tended to follow non-linear trends that may include hysteresis and time-lags. Improved understanding of hypoxia remediation requires that future studies use comparative approaches and consider multiple regulating factors. These analyses should consider: (1) the dominant temporal scales of the hypoxia, (2) the relative contributions of inorganic and organic nutrients, (3) the influence of shifts in climatic and oceanographic processes, and (4) the roles of feedback interactions whereby O 2 -sensitive biogeochemistry, trophic interactions, and habitat conditions influence the nutrient and algal dynamics that regulate O 2 levels.

Abstract. A 38-year record of bottom-water dissolved oxygen concentrations in coastal marine ecosystems around Denmark (1965Denmark ( -2003 and a longer, partially reconstructed record of total nitrogen (TN) inputs were assembled with the purpose of describing longterm patterns in hypoxia and anoxia. In addition, interannual variations in bottom-water oxygen concentrations were analyzed in relation to various explanatory variables (bottom temperature, wind speed, advective transport, TN loading). Reconstructed TN loads peaked in the 1980s, with a gradual decline to the present, commensurate with a legislated nutrient reduction strategy. Mean bottom-water oxygen concentrations during summer have significantly declined in coastal marine ecosystems, decreasing substantially during the 1980s and were extremely variable thereafter. Despite decreasing TN loads, the worst hypoxic event ever recorded in open waters occurred in 2002. For estuaries and coastal areas, bottomwater oxygen concentrations were best described by TN input from land and wind speed in July-September, explaining 52% of the interannual variation in concentrations. For open sea areas, bottom-water oxygen concentrations were also modulated by TN input from land; however, additional significant variables included advective transport of water and Skagerrak surface-water temperature and explained 49% of interannual variations in concentrations. Reductions in the number of benthic species and alpha diversity were significantly related to the duration of the 2002 hypoxic event. Gradual decreases in diversity measures (number of species and alpha diversity) over the first 2-4 weeks show that the benthic community undergoes significant changes before the duration of hypoxia is severe enough to cause the community to collapse. Enhanced sediment-water fluxes of NH 4 þ and PO 4 3À occur with hypoxia, increasing nutrient concentrations in the water column and stimulating additional phytoplankton production. Repeated hypoxic events have changed the character of benthic communities and how organic matter is processed in sediments. Our data suggest that repeated hypoxic events lead to an increase in susceptibility of Danish waters to eutrophication and further hypoxia.

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The premise of this article is that climate effects on lakes can be quantified most effectively by the integration of process-oriented limnological studies with paleolimnological research, particularly when both disciplines operate within a common conceptual framework. To this end, the energy (E)-mass (m) flux framework (Em flux) is developed and applied to selected retrospective studies to demonstrate that climate variability regulates lake structure and function over diverse temporal and spatial scales through four main pathways: rapid direct transfer of E to the lake surface by irradiance, heat, and wind; slow indirect effects of E via changes in terrestrial development and subsequent m subsidies to lakes; direct influx of m as precipitation, particles, and solutes from the atmosphere; and indirect influx of water, suspended particles, and dissolved substances from the catchment. Sedimentary analyses are used to illustrate the unique effects of each pathway on lakes but suggest that interactions among mechanisms are complex and depend on the landscape position of lakes, catchment characteristics, the range of temporal variation of individual pathways, ontogenetic changes in lake basins, and the selective effects of humans on m transfers. In particular, preliminary synthesis suggests that m influx can overwhelm the direct effects of E transfer to lakes, especially when anthropogenic activities alter m subsidies from catchments.The structure and function of lake ecosystems is regulated by complex interactions among climate, humans, ecosystem morphology, and catchment characteristics, each of which varies in time and space (Schindler 2001). For example, climatic controls range from daily meteorological variations in local irradiance, temperature, and water fluxes (Keller 2007) through to large-scale interactions of the atmosphere and oceans (Trenberth and Hurrell 1994;Hurrell 1995;Mantua et al. 1997) and millennium-long changes in energy (E) and mass (m) flux around the planet (Williams et al. 1997;Diffenbaugh et al. 2006). Within this framework, chemical, physical, and ecological processes combine to determine the production and composition of aquatic communities, both uniquely and in consort with other mechanisms (Carpenter 1999). In addition, lakes are affected both by human disturbance of biotic communities and biogeochemical cycles (e.g., land use, urbanization, fisheries management) and by creation of novel stressors (e.g., acidic precipitation, toxicants, ozone loss). However, because these factors interact over diverse spatial and temporal scales, it is difficult to determine the relative importance of regulatory processes using only traditional site-based observation and experimentation. Instead, it is the premise of this article that the combined use of limnology and paleoecology represents the best means to quantify and scale interactions between climate and other control mechanisms and to develop a hierarchical understanding of how these regulatory processes are likely to influence lakes pres...

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