Many primary sensory neurons are polymodal, responding to multiple stimulus modalities (chemical, thermal, or mechanical), yet each modality is recognized differently. While polymodality implies that stimulus encoding occurs in higher centers such as the spinal cord or brain, recent sensory neuron ablation studies find that behavioral responses to different modalities require distinct subpopulations, suggesting the existence of modality-specific labeled-lines at the level of the sensory afferent. Here we provide evidence that neurons expressing TRPM8, a cold- and menthol-gated channel required for normal cold responses in mammals, represents a labeled-line solely for cold sensation. We examined the behavioral significance of conditionally ablating TRPM8+ neurons in adult mice, finding that, like animals lacking TRPM8 channels (Trpm8−/−), animals depleted of TRPM8 neurons (ablated) are insensitive to cool to painfully cold temperatures. Ablated animals showed little aversion to noxious cold and did not distinguish between cold and a preferred warm temperature, a phenotype more profound than that of Trpm8−/− mice which exhibit only partial cold avoidance and preference behaviors. In addition to acute responses, cold pain associated with inflammation and nerve injury was significantly attenuated in ablated and Trpm8−/− mice. Moreover, cooling-induced analgesia after nerve injury was abolished in both genotypes. Lastly, heat, mechanical, and proprioceptive behaviors were normal in ablated mice, demonstrating that TRPM8 neurons are dispensable for other somatosensory modalities. Together these data show that while some limited cold sensitivity remains in Trpm8−/− mice, TRPM8 neurons are required for the breadth of behavioral responses evoked by cold temperatures.

TRPM8 (Transient Receptor Potential Melastatin-8) is a cold- and menthol-gated ion channel necessary for the detection of cold temperatures in the mammalian peripheral nervous system. Functioning TRPM8 channels are required for behavioral responses to innocuous cool, noxious cold, injury-evoked cold hypersensitivity, cooling-mediated analgesia, and thermoregulation. Because of these various roles, the ability to pharmacologically manipulate TRPM8 function to alter the excitability of cold-sensing neurons may have broad impact clinically. Here we examined a novel compound, PBMC (1-phenylethyl-4-(benzyloxy)-3-methoxybenzyl(2-aminoethyl)carbamate) which robustly and selectively inhibited TRPM8 channels in vitro with sub-nanomolar affinity, as determined by calcium microfluorimetry and electrophysiology. The actions of PBMC were selective for TRPM8, with no functional effects observed for the sensory ion channels TRPV1 and TRPA1. PBMC altered TRPM8 gating by shifting the voltage-dependence of menthol-evoked currents towards positive membrane potentials. When administered systemically to mice, PBMC treatment produced a dose-dependent hypothermia in wildtype animals while TRPM8-knockout mice remained unaffected. This hypothermic response was reduced at lower doses, whereas responses to evaporative cooling were still significantly attenuated. Lastly, systemic PBMC also diminished cold hypersensitivity in inflammatory and nerve-injury pain models, but was ineffective against oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic cold hypersensitivity, despite our findings that TRPM8 is required for the cold-related symptoms of this pathology. Thus PBMC is an attractive compound that serves as a template for the formulation of highly specific and potent TRPM8 antagonists that will have utility both in vitro and in vivo.

Chronic pain associated with injury or disease can result from dysfunction of sensory afferents whereby the threshold for activation of pain-sensing neurons (nociceptors) is lowered. Neurotrophic factors control nociceptor development and survival, but also induce sensitization through activation of their cognate receptors, attributable, in part, to the modulation of ion channel function. Thermal pain is mediated by channels of the transient receptor potential (TRP) family, including the cold and menthol receptor TRPM8. Although it has been shown that TRPM8 is involved in cold hypersensitivity, the molecular mechanisms underlying this pain modality are unknown. Using microarray analyses to identify mouse genes enriched in TRPM8 neurons, we found that the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family receptor GFR␣3 is expressed in a subpopulation of TRPM8 sensory neurons that have the neurochemical profile of cold nociceptors. Moreover, we found that artemin, the specific GFR␣3 ligand that evokes heat hyperalgesia, robustly sensitized cold responses in a TRPM8-dependent manner in mice. In contrast, GFR␣1 and GFR␣2 are not coexpressed with TRPM8 and their respective ligands GDNF and neurturin did not induce cold pain, whereas they did evoke heat hyperalgesia. Nerve growth factor induced mild cold sensitization, consistent with TrkA expression in TRPM8 neurons. However, bradykinin failed to alter cold sensitivity even though its receptor expresses in a subset of TRPM8 neurons. These results show for the first time that only select neurotrophic factors induce cold sensitization through TRPM8 in vivo, unlike the broad range of proalgesic agents capable of promoting heat hyperalgesia.

The proper detection of environmental temperatures is essential for the optimal growth and survival of organisms of all shapes and phyla, yet only recently have the molecular mechanisms for temperature sensing been elucidated. The discovery of temperature-sensitive ion channels of the transient receptor potential (TRP) superfamily has been pivotal in explaining how temperatures are sensed in vivo, and here we will focus on the lone member of this cohort, TRPM8, which has been unequivocally shown to be cold sensitive. TRPM8 is expressed in somatosensory neurons that innervate peripheral tissues such as the skin and oral cavity, and recent genetic evidence has shown it to be the principal transducer of cool and cold stimuli. It is remarkable that this one channel, unlike other thermosensitive TRP channels, is associated with both innocuous and noxious temperature transduction, as well as cold hypersensitivity during injury and, paradoxically, cold-mediated analgesia. With ongoing research, the field is getting closer to answering a number of fundamental questions regarding this channel, including the cellular mechanisms of TRPM8 modulation, the molecular context of TRPM8 expression, as well as the full extent of the role of TRPM8 in cold signaling in vivo. These findings will further our understanding of basic thermotransduction and sensory coding, and may have important implications for treatments for acute and chronic pain.

McCoy DD, Zhou L, Nguyen A, Watts AG, Donovan CM, McKemy DD. Enhanced insulin clearance in mice lacking TRPM8 channels. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 305: E78 -E88, 2013. First published May 7, 2013; doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00542.2012.-Blood glucose concentration is tightly regulated by the rate of insulin secretion and clearance, a process partially controlled by sensory neurons serving as metabolic sensors in relevant tissues. The activity of these neurons is regulated by the products of metabolism which regulate transmitter release, and recent evidence suggests that neuronally expressed ion channels of the transient receptor potential (TRP) family function in this critical process. Here, we report the novel finding that the cold and menthol-gated channel TRPM8 is necessary for proper insulin homeostasis. Mice lacking TRPM8 respond normally to a glucose challenge while exhibiting prolonged hypoglycemia in response to insulin. Additionally, Trpm8Ϫ/Ϫ mice have increased rates of insulin clearance compared with wild-type animals and increased expression of insulin-degrading enzyme in the liver. TRPM8 channels are not expressed in the liver, but TRPM8-expressing sensory afferents innervate the hepatic portal vein, suggesting a TRPM8-mediated neuronal control of liver insulin clearance. These results demonstrate that TRPM8 is a novel regulator of serum insulin and support the role of sensory innervation in metabolic homeostasis.insulin; clearance; TRPM8; neuronal; sensitivity MANY TRP FAMILY CATION CHANNELS are essential for the detection of environmental stimuli and their functional role in somatosensation is well established (2). However, these channels are also expressed in primary sensory neurons innervating internal tissues, where the environment changes little, and likely monitor the body's internal environment (30). For example, pancreatic sensory neurons expressing TRPV1, a noxious heat-gated ion channel that is the receptor for capsaicin, the "hot" ingredient in chili peppers, mediate insulin resistance and islet inflammation (24). Furthermore, TRPV1 ϩ neurons innervate the hepatic portal vein (HPV) and are involved in the detection of hypoglycemia (9). Complicating the neuronal role of these channels, recent evidence suggests that many are also expressed in nonneuronal tissues and are involved in other cellular processes related to glucose metabolism. TRPV1 expression has been reported in pancreatic ␤-cell lines, where it may modulate insulin secretion (1), although it is not clear whether TRPV1 is expressed in native ␤-cells (30). Similarly, TRPA1, a broad-spectrum irritant receptor (12), is found in native ␤-cells, and its activation by endogenous ligands induces insulin release via an increase in intracellular calcium (7). Last, several TRPM channels mediate insulin secretion by sensing changes in intracellular second messengers such as Ca 2ϩ and NAD metabolites and are integral in regulation through hormone receptors (30). Thus, TRP ion channels appear to be novel regulators of insulin secretion and pancr...