AbstractPast studies conclude that a territorial integrity norm caused territorial conquest to decline sharply after 1945, virtually subsiding after 1975. However, using new and more comprehensive data on territorial conquest attempts, this study presents a revised history of conquest after 1945. Unlike attempts to conquer entire states, attempts to conquer parts of states remained far more common than previously recognized. More than conquest declined in frequency, its relationship with war evolved. Challengers attempting conquest before 1945 often initiated a war, then sought to occupy large territories. Today, challengers more often seize small regions, then attempt to avoid war. Adopting this strategy, the fait accompli, challengers increasingly came to target territories with characteristics that reduce the risk of provoking war—such as a low population and the absence of a defending military garrison—but challengers nonetheless take a calculated gamble. In part because seizures of smaller territories with such characteristics have not declined, the operative constraint appears to be against war-prone aggression, not territorial revision. The evolution of conquest is a symptom of war's decline, not its cause. Most of the evidence that the territorial integrity norm suppressed conquest or war withers under investigation with new data. Attempts to get away with seizing small pieces of territory are likely to be a defining element of the twenty-first-century international security landscape.

No abstract

Introduction:We developed an economical three-dimensional printed and casted simulator of the hand for the training of percutaneous pinning. This simulator augments the traditional “See one, do one, teach one” training model.Methods:To evaluate the simulator, five expert orthopaedic surgeons were recruited to perform percutaneous pinning on the simulator and then to complete a questionnaire on its realism and expected usefulness. Evaluation was based on responses to multiple-choice questions and a Likert-type scale.Results:All subjects expressed that the tactile hand simulator is useful for residency training. They would recommend the simulator to their colleagues and indicated interest in testing future iterations. Subjects rated highly the realism of the material, the purchase of the pin, and the cortical–cancellous bone interface.Conclusion:The learning of tactile skills in addition to visual cues on a tactile simulator is expected to benefit residents. It provides a low-cost and low-risk environment outside the operating room for residents to hone their skills.