Quantifying the emissions of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) is of high importance due to potential impacts on receiving aquatic ecosystems. The new Australian PFAS National Environmental Management Plan recommends 0.23 ng L −1 of PFOS as the guideline value for 99% species protection for aquatic systems. In this study, 21 PFAS from four classes were measured in WWTP solid and aqueous samples from 19 Australian WWTPs. The mean ∑ 21 PFAS was 110 ng L −1 (median: 80 ng L −1 ; range: 9.3–520 ng L −1 ) in aqueous samples and 34 ng g −1 dw (median: 12 ng g −1 dw; range: 2.0–130 ng g −1 dw) in WWTP solids. Similar to WWTPs worldwide, perfluorocarboxylic acids were generally higher in effluent, compared to influent. Partitioning to solids within WWTPs increased with increasing fluoroalkyl chain length from 0.05 to 1.22 log units. Many PFAS were highly correlated, and PCA analysis showed strong associations between two groups: odd chained PFCAs, PFHxA and PFSAs; and 6:2 FTS with daily inflow volume and the proportion of trade waste accepted by WWTPs (as % of typical dry inflow). The compounds PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFNA, and PFDA increased significantly between influent and final effluent. The compounds 6:2 FTS and 8:2 FTS were quantified and F–53B detected and reported in Australian WWTP matrices. The compound 6:2 FTS was an important contributor to PFAS emissions in the studied Australian WWTPs, supporting the need for future research on its sources (including precursor degradation), environmental fate and impact in Australian aquatic environments receiving WWTP effluent.

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The field-based distribution and bioaccumulation factor (BAF) for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) were determined in residential Black Swans (Cygnus atratus) from an urban lake (Melbourne, Australia). The concentrations of 46 aliphatic and cyclic PFASs were determined by HPLC-MS/MS in serum and excrement from swans, and water, sediment, aquatic macrophytes, soil, and grass samples in and around the lake. Elevated concentrations of ∑46PFASs were detected in serum (120 ng mL–1) and excrement (110 ng g–1 dw) were strongly related indicating a potential noninvasive sampling methodology. Environmental concentrations of PFASs were consistent with a highly impacted ecosystem and notably high concentrations of perfluoro-4-ethylcyclohexanesulfonate (PFECHS, 67584–42–3; C8HF15SO3) were detected in water (27 ng L–1) and swan serum (16 ng mL–1). In the absence of credible putative alternative sources of PFECHS input to the lake, we propose that the use of high-performance motorsport vehicles is a likely source of contamination to this ecosystem. The BAF of perfluorocarboxylic acids increased with each additional CF2 moiety from PFOA (15.7 L kg–1 ww) to PFDoDA (3615 L kg–1 ww). The BAF of PFECHS was estimated as 593 L kg–1 ww, which is lower compared with that of PFOS (1097 L kg–1 ww).

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are incredibly useful additives, often providing excellent surface tension-lowering properties to a material. Due to the extensive use of PFAS in daily life in developed countries, PFAS invariably collects in municipal wastewater. Without targeted removal of PFAS at wastewater treatment plants, PFAS can move through the treatment process into both the recycled water and biosolids. The presence of PFAS in biosolids poses a potential challenging problem to society for many reasons. A small number of countries have cautiously started, or have at least considered, limiting the concentration of PFAS permitted in biosolids that are to be used for land application. Our review covers the current limits on PFAS concentrations in Australian biosolids, along with the latest developments in international regulations. We found that only Maine, USA, has set upper limits of PFAS for “beneficial use of solid wastes”. Denmark, Germany, The Netherlands, Sweden and Australia have set PFAS limits in soils. No other countries were found to have PFAS limits relating to biosolids or their use; however, this also reflects the lack of industrialisation and centralised wastewater management in many parts of the world.