Keratin from various livestock industries is currently a waste material that has potential as a source of polyamide polymers that could replace fossil fuel derived materials if processing methods can be developed. In this work we have investigated methods for the dissolution and regeneration of keratin. Dissolution of keratin (from turkey feather) in ionic liquids was conducted under nitrogen at 130 °C for 10 hours. It was found that [BMIM]Cl, [AMIM]Cl and [choline][thioglycolate] could dissolve turkey feather keratin without addition of solvent or other chemicals. A significant percentage of solubility was obtained, up to 45% by weight. A water insoluble fraction was recovered by addition of water to the solution (∼50%). The structure and properties of this regenerated, water insoluble fraction were investigated. Compared to the starting material, the regenerated keratin shows structural changes rather than chemical changes within the polypeptide chains. The remaining fraction, consisting of water soluble fragments, was characterised by gel electrophoresis.
BackgroundGlucosinolates, a group of nitrogen and sulfur containing compounds associated with plant-insect interactions, are produced by a number of important Brassicaceae crop species. In Arabidopsis the AOP2 gene plays a role in the secondary modification of aliphatic (methionine-derived) glucosinolates, namely the conversion of methylsulfinylalkyl glucosinolates to form alkenyl glucosinolates, and also influences aliphatic glucosinolate accumulation.ResultsThis study characterises the primary structural variation in the coding sequences of the AOP2 gene and identifies three different AOP2 alleles based on polymorphisms in exon two. To help determine the regulatory mechanisms mediating AOP2 expression amongst accessions, AOP2 5' regulatory regions were also examined however no major differences were identified. Expression of the AOP2 gene was found to be most abundant in leaf and stem tissue and was also found to be light dependent, with a number of light regulatory elements identified in the promoter region of the gene. In addition, a study was undertaken to demonstrate that the Arabidopsis AOP2 gene product is functional in planta. The over-expression of a functional AOP2 allele was found to successfully convert the precursor methylsulfinyl alkyl glucosinolate into the alkenyl form.ConclusionsThe expression of the AOP2 gene has been found to be influenced by light and is most highly expressed in the photosynthetic parts of the Arabidopsis plant. The level of AOP2 transcript decreases rapidly in the absence of light. AOP2 exists as at least three alleles in different Arabidopsis accessions and we have demonstrated that one of these, AOP2-2, is functionally able to convert methylsulfinyl glucosinolates into the alkenyl form. The demonstration of the in planta functionality of the Arabisopsis AOP2 gene is an important step in determining the feasibility of engineering glucosinolate profiles in food plants.
The resurrection grass Sporobolus stapfianus Gandoger can rapidly recover from extended periods of time in the desiccated state (water potential equilibrated to 2% relative humidity) (Gaff and Ellis, Bothalia 11:305-308 1974; Gaff and Loveys, Transactions of the Malaysian Society of Plant Physiology 3:286-287 1993). Physiological studies have been conducted in S. stapfianus to investigate the responses utilised by these desiccationtolerant plants to cope with severe water-deficit. In a number of instances, more recent gene expression analyses in S. stapfianus have shed light on the molecular and cellular mechanisms mediating these responses. S. stapfianus is a versatile research tool for investigating desiccation-tolerance in vegetative grass tissue, with several useful characteristics for differentiating desiccation-tolerance adaptive genes from the many dehydration-responsive genes present in plants. A number of genes orthologous to those isolated from dehydrating S. stapfianus have been successfully used to enhance drought and salt tolerance in model plants as well as important crop species. In addition to the ability to desiccate and rehydrate successfully, the survival of resurrection plants in regions experiencing short sporadic rainfall events may depend substantially on the ability to tightly down-regulate cell division and cell wall loosening activities with decreasing water availability and then grow rapidly after rainfall while water is plentiful. Hence, an analysis of gene transcripts present in the desiccated tissue of resurrection plants may reveal important growth-related genes. Recent findings support the proposition that, as well as being a versatile model for devising strategies for protecting plants from water-loss, resurrection plants may be a very useful tool for pinpointing genes to target for enhancing growth rate and biomass production.
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