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Targeting a T cell inhibitory checkpoint with the anti-CTLA-4 monoclonal antibody, ipilimumab, represents a scientific breakthrough in immunotherapy for the treatment of cancer. However, ipilimumab therapy is also associated with unique side effects, known as immune-related adverse events (irAEs), which need to be recognized and managed with immunosuppressive agents. To date, the majority of our knowledge regarding ipilimumab-associated side effects is based upon clinical studies in melanoma. Here, we provide a review of ipilimumab-induced irAEs and our experience in a cohort of 44 patients with prostate cancer who were treated at M. D. Anderson Cancer Center on two different clinical trial protocols.

Artificial liver models have been extensively developed for pathological modeling and toxicological studies. However, the prediction of existing in vitro liver models rarely corresponds to what is consequently observed in vivo owing to the structural and functional complexity of the liver. Here, a new liver model designed to enable the implantation and maintenance of liver buds in perfusable 3D hydrogels where a microvascular network develops within a 200 µm diffusion limit is developed. This system replicates inflammation, lipid accumulation, and fibrosis during the progressive processes of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, in which this model predicted the results from a mouse model. This model reveals that a hepatic steatosis-reducing drug restored mitochondrial activities with significant reduction of inflammation, oxidative stress, and lipid accumulation. This liver model is not only highly predictive but also scalable and easy to apply to high-throughput drug screening and implantation studies, suggesting a promising alternative to animal models.