Mutations in the gene encoding the homeobox transcription factor NKX2-5 were found to cause nonsyndromic, human congenital heart disease. A dominant disease locus associated with cardiac malformations and atrioventricular conduction abnormalities was mapped to chromosome 5q35, where NKX2-5, a Drosophila tinman homolog, is located. Three different NKX2-5 mutations were identified. Two are predicted to impair binding of NKX2-5 to target DNA, resulting in haploinsufficiency, and a third potentially augments target-DNA binding. These data indicate that NKX2-5 is important for regulation of septation during cardiac morphogenesis and for maturation and maintenance of atrioventricular node function throughout life.

Abstract-Heart valve disease is an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Little is known about valve disease pathogenesis, but increasing evidence implicates a genetic basis for valve disease, suggesting a developmental origin. Although the cellular and molecular processes involved in early valvulogenesis have been well described, less is known about the regulation of valve extracellular matrix (ECM) organization and valvular interstitial cell (VIC) distribution that characterize the mature valve structure. Histochemistry, immunohistochemistry, and electron microscopy were used to examine ECM organization, VIC distribution, and cell proliferation during late valvulogenesis in chicken and mouse. In mature valves, ECM organization is conserved across species, and developmental studies demonstrate that ECM stratification begins during late embryonic cusp remodeling and continues into postnatal life. Cell proliferation decreases concomitant with ECM stratification and VIC compartmentalization. Explanted, stenotic bicuspid aortic valves (BAVs) from pediatric patients were also examined. The diseased valves exhibited disruption of the highly organized ECM and VIC distribution seen in normal valves. Cusps from diseased valves were thickened with increased and disorganized collagens and proteoglycans, decreased and fragmented elastic fibers, and cellular disarray without calcification or cell proliferation. Taken together, these studies show that normal valve development is characterized by spatiotemporal coordination of ECM organization and VIC compartmentalization and that these developmental processes are disrupted in pediatric patients with diseased BAVs. Key Words: valve disease Ⅲ extracellular matrix Ⅲ valvular interstitial cells Ⅲ cardiac development V alve replacement, usually for aortic valve disease, is the second most common cardiac operation performed in the US, and the need for reintervention is common. 1,2 Little is known about valve disease pathogenesis, but increasing evidence implicates a genetic basis for valve malformation, suggesting a developmental origin. [3][4][5][6][7] Valve development is initiated with endothelial-mesenchymal transformation of the endocardium in the outflow tract and atrioventricular (AV) canal to form endocardial cushions, and this process has been extensively studied. 8,9 Endocardial cushions subsequently elongate as a result of cell proliferation and undergo expansion and remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) to form the mature semilunar valve cusps and AV valve leaflets. The morphogenetic events that characterize valvulogenesis during late embryonic and postnatal development are largely unknown. 10 The mature valve structure is composed of ECM, valvular interstitial cells (VICs), and overlying endothelial cells. The ECM is composed of 3 highly organized overlapping layers with distinct mechanical properties arranged in orientation to blood flow in the semilunar and AV valves. 11,12 The primary components of these layers are collagens, proteoglycans, a...

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Background Life-threatening disorders of heart rhythm may arise during infancy and can result in the sudden and tragic death of a child. We performed exome sequencing on two unrelated infants presenting with recurrent cardiac arrest to discover a genetic cause. Methods and Results We ascertained two unrelated infants (probands) with recurrent cardiac arrest and dramatically prolonged QTc interval who were both born to healthy parents. The two parent-child trios were investigated using exome sequencing to search for de novo genetic variants. We then performed follow-up candidate gene screening on an independent cohort of 82 subjects with congenital long-QT syndrome without an identified genetic cause. Biochemical studies were performed to determine the functional consequences of mutations discovered in two genes encoding calmodulin. We discovered three heterozygous de novo mutations in either CALM1 or CALM2, two of the three human genes encoding calmodulin, in the two probands and in two additional subjects with recurrent cardiac arrest. All mutation carriers were infants who exhibited life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias combined variably with epilepsy and delayed neurodevelopment. Mutations altered residues in or adjacent to critical calcium binding loops in the calmodulin carboxyl-terminal domain. Recombinant mutant calmodulins exhibited several fold reductions in calcium binding affinity. Conclusions Human calmodulin mutations disrupt calcium ion binding to the protein and are associated with a life-threatening condition in early infancy. Defects in calmodulin function will disrupt important calcium signaling events in heart affecting membrane ion channels, a plausible molecular mechanism for potentially deadly disturbances in heart rhythm during infancy.

The high heritability of BAV suggests that in this study population BAV determination is almost entirely genetic. The heritability of BAV plus other cardiovascular anomalies suggests that valve malformation can be primary to defective valvulogenesis or secondary to other elements of cardiogenesis.

Abstract-The intent of this review is to provide the clinician with a summary of what is currently known about the contribution of genetics to the origin of congenital heart disease. Techniques are discussed to evaluate children with heart disease for genetic alterations. Many of these techniques are now available on a clinical basis. Information on the genetic and clinical evaluation of children with cardiac disease is presented, and several tables have been constructed to aid the clinician in the assessment of children with different types of heart disease. Genetic algorithms for cardiac defects have been constructed and are available in an appendix. It is anticipated that this summary will update a wide range of medical personnel, including pediatric cardiologists and pediatricians, adult cardiologists, internists, obstetricians, nurses, and thoracic surgeons, about the genetic aspects of congenital heart disease and will encourage an interdisciplinary approach to the child and adult with congenital heart disease. (Circulation. 2007;115:3015-3038.)

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FT-based assessment of epsilon(cc) correlates highly with epsilon(cc) derived from tagged images in a large DMD patient population with a wide range of cardiac dysfunction and can be performed without additional imaging.