We assess the causes of adult sex ratio skew in marine pelagic copepods by examining changes in these ratios between the juveniles and adults, sexual differences in juvenile stage durations, and mortality rates of adults in the field and laboratory (when free from predators). In the field, late copepodite stages (CIV and CV) commonly have sex ratios that are either not significantly different from equity (1 : 1), or slightly male biased. By contrast, in adults, these ratios are commonly significantly biased toward female dominance. Sex ratio skews are therefore primarily attributable to processes in adults. Members of the non-Diaptomoidea have especially skewed adult ratios; in the members Oithonidae and Clausocalanidae this is not generated from differences between male and female adult physiological longevity (i.e., laboratory longevity when free of predators). In the genera Acartia, Oithona, and Pseudocalanus, we estimate that predation mortality contributed $ 69% of the field mortality rate in adult males, whereas in Acartia, Oithona, and Calanus adult females, this is $ 36%. We conclude that (1) adult sex ratio skew in pelagic copepods is primarily due to differential mortality of the sexes in the adult stage and not in juveniles, (2) mortality rates of adult Acartia, Pseudocalanus, and Oithona are dominated by predation mortality rather than physiological longevity (except under extreme food limitation), and (3) in Pseudocalanus and Oithona, elevated mortality rates in adult males to females is predominantly due to higher predation on males. Our work demonstrates that we now need to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the importance of feeding preferences in predators.
A long-term time series of plankton records collected by the continuous plankton recorder (CPR) Survey in the northeast Atlantic indicates an increased occurrence of Cnidaria since 2002. In the years 2007 and 2008, outbreaks of the warm-temperate scyphomedusa, Pelagia noctiluca, appeared in CPR samples between 45° N to 58° N and 1° W to 26° W. Knowing the biology of this species and its occurrence in the adjacent Mediterranean Sea, we suggest that P. noctiluca may be exploiting recent hydroclimatic changes in the northeast Atlantic to increase its extent and intensity of outbreaks. In pelagic ecosystems, Cnidaria can affect fish recruitment negatively. Since P. noctiluca is a highly venomous species, outbreaks can also be detrimental to aquaculture and make bathing waters unusable, thus having profound ecological and socio-economic consequences.
Spawning temperature preferences for sardine (Sardina pilchardus) in the eastern North Atlantic were determined from egg survey data. These were compared with climatological temperature cycles (19862 002) derived from satellite observations, by geographical region, to predict spawning seasons. Optimum spawning temperatures were determined as 14.0^15.08C from the English Channel to Portugal and 16.01 8.08C for all north-west African regions. Spawning seasons were closely related to the general latitudinal trend of the annual temperature cycle, with modi¢cation by upwelling in the western Iberian and northwest African regions. Some di¡erences between temperature-based spawning season predictions and ¢eld observations were related to variations in seasonal plankton production. Correlations in the annual timeseries of favourable spawning temperatures suggested relatively strong linkages between the southern areas from Portugal to Senegal. There was no consistent relationship between annual variations in extent of temperature-predicted spawning seasons and observed ¢eld abundance of eggs.
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