Often changes in gene expression levels have been considered significant only when above/below some arbitrarily chosen threshold. We investigated the effect of applying a purely statistical approach to microarray analysis and demonstrated that small changes in gene expression have biological significance. Whole genome microarray analysis of a pde2⌬ mutant, constructed in the Saccharomyces cerevisiae reference strain FY23, revealed altered expression of ϳ11% of protein encoding genes. The mutant, characterized by constitutive activation of the Ras/cAMP pathway, has increased sensitivity to stress, reduced ability to assimilate nonfermentable carbon sources, and some cell wall integrity defects. Applying the Munich Information Centre for Protein Sequences (MIPS) functional categories revealed increased expression of genes related to ribosome biogenesis and downregulation of genes in the cell rescue, defense, cell death and aging category, suggesting a decreased response to stress conditions. A reduced level of gene expression in the unfolded protein response pathway (UPR) was observed. Cell wall genes whose expression was affected by this mutation were also identified. Several of the cAMP-responsive orphan genes, upon further investigation, revealed cell wall functions; others had previously unidentified phenotypes assigned to them. This investigation provides a statistical global transcriptome analysis of the cellular response to constitutive activation of the Ras/cAMP pathway. constitutive activation of PKA by PDE2 deletion; Ras/cAMP pathway; cell wall integrity THE RAS/CAMP PATHWAY is a highly conserved signal transduction pathway operating via the second messenger, cAMP (6). In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, it controls cell-cycle progression, cell growth and proliferation (3, 81), reprogramming of transcription at the diauxic transition (8), mating (1), pseudohyphal morphogenesis (27, 55), metabolism (9), and stress responses. The synthesis of cAMP is catalyzed by adenylate cyclase (40), which is regulated by Ras proteins (18,24,80), the G protein ␣-subunit homolog, Gpa2 (48), and the adenylate-cyclase-associated protein, Cap1p (23,25). The only known biochemical role of cAMP is to activate protein kinase A (PKA) (12,78,79). High activity of PKA in yeast leads to low levels of the storage carbohydrates trehalose and glycogen, low stress resistance due to reduced expression of STRE ("stress response element")-controlled genes, aberrant G 0 arrest, poor growth on nonfermentable and weakly fermentable carbon sources, and failure of sporulation in diploid cells. Low activity yields de-repression of STRE-controlled genes leading to high stress resistance, constitutive expression of heat-shock genes, and sporulation of diploid cells in rich media (for reviews, see Refs. 10,64,[74][75][76]. Two trans-acting factors (Msn2p and Msn4p), negatively regulated by PKA, have been shown to be involved in STRE-mediated gene expression (47,67).Intracellular levels of cAMP, and hence the state of the Ras/cAMP pathway, are also contr...

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The human cornea is a tri-laminar structure composed of several cell types with substantial mitotic potential. Age-related changes in the cornea are associated with declining visual acuity and the onset of overt age-related corneal diseases. Corneal transplantation is commonly used to restore vision in patients with damaged or diseased corneas. However, the supply of donor tissue is limited, and thus there is considerable interest in the development of tissue-engineered alternatives. A major obstacle to these approaches is the short replicative lifespan of primary human corneal endothelial cells (HCEC). Accordingly, a comprehensive investigation of the signalling pathways and mechanisms underpinning proliferative lifespan and senescence in HCEC was undertaken. The effects of exogenous human telomerase reverse transcriptase expression, p53 knockdown, disruption of the pRb pathway by over-expression of CDK4 and reduced oxygen concentration on the lifespan of primary HCEC were evaluated. We provide proof-of-principle that forced expression of telomerase, when combined with either p53 knockdown or CDK4 over-expression, is sufficient to produce immortalized HCEC lines. The resultant cell lines express an HCEC-specific transcriptional fingerprint, and retain expression of the corneal endothelial temperature-sensitive potassium channel, suggesting that significant dedifferentiation does not occur as a result of these modes of immortalization. Exploiting these insights into proliferative lifespan barriers in HCEC will underpin the development of novel strategies for cell-based therapies in the human cornea.

We have used DNA microarray technology and 2-D gel electrophoresis combined with mass spectrometry to investigate the effects of a drastic heat shock from 30℃ to 50℃ on a genome-wide scale. This experimental condition is used to differentiate between wild-type cells and those with a constitutively active cAMP-dependent pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Whilst more than 50% of the former survive this shock, almost all of the latter lose viability. We compared the transcriptomes of the wildtype and a mutant strain deleted for the gene PDE2, encoding the high-affinity cAMP phosphodiesterase before and after heat shock treatment. We also compared the two heat-shocked samples with one another, allowing us to determine the changes that occur in the pde2Δ mutant which cause such a dramatic loss of viability after heat shock. Several genes involved in ergosterol biosynthesis and carbon source utilization had altered expression levels, suggesting that these processes might be potential factors in heat shock survival. These predictions and also the effect of the different phases of the cell cycle were confirmed by biochemical and phenotypic analyses. 146 genes of previously unknown function were identified amongst the genes with altered expression levels and deletion mutants in 13 of these genes were found to be highly sensitive to heat shock. Differences in response to heat shock were also observed at the level of the proteome, with a higher level of protein degradation in the mutant, as revealed by comparing 2-D gels of wild-type and mutant heat-shocked samples and mass spectrometry analysis of the differentially produced proteins.

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This article describes the major routes by which water becomes contaminated with enteric pathogens and reviews human pathophysiology, animal reservoirs, presence and survival in the environment, and survival in water of major enteric pathogens (Campylobacter, Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Cryptosporidium).