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These findings support the validity of the DSM-IV diagnosis of ADHD in younger children by demonstrating that the symptoms and associated impairment are likely to persist well into elementary school.

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One of the more controversial issues in terms of mental disorder diagnoses has been their differential sex prevalence. The conclusions provided in the 4th edition of the American Psychiatric Association's (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders were derived from systematic reviews of the research literature. However, this research is perhaps complicated by common sources of error. Two sources, in particular, are emphasized here: biases in sampling and biases within the diagnostic criteria themselves. The potential for such biases is illustrated for a wide variety of mental disorder diagnoses, and suggestions for research to address them are provided.

Sex and gender differences in psychopathology have been understudied, yet identifying and understanding variability by sex and gender is important for the development of comprehensive etiological models as well as effective assessment and treatment of psychopathology in all persons. In the current article, we discuss the importance of sex and gender in psychopathology research, review terminology used when examining these constructs, and present multiple explanations for differential prevalence rates. Next, we review articles from psychopathology journals and conclude that researchers more often include both males and females than they did two decades ago, but still do not consistently analyze by sex or gender. We also provide an update of male-to-female ratios as presented in the DSM-5 and conduct a systematic review of the literature for selected disorders. We conclude that the DSM-5 presentation of sex or gender ratios is not systematic. Finally, we provide suggestions for the next DSM task force, researchers, journal editors, and funding agencies. These recommendations focus on more consistently and systematically considering sex and gender in all aspects of psychopathology research.

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The use of the WFIRS in identifying ADHD-related impairment in emerging adults appears to be psychometrically supported, and will prove useful to clinicians and researchers.

Overall, clear differences emerged between men and women with ADHD. Implications and future directions are discussed.