A shortened version of this review is in press in the Review of Educational Research _______________ This paper was written under funding from the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education (Grant No. R305A040082). However, any opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent Department of Education positions or policies. We thank Steve Ross, Carole Torgerson, and Bette Chambers for comments on an earlier draft, and we thank Dewi Smith, Susan Davis, and Sharon Fox for their help.

This article systematically reviews research on the achievement outcomes of four types of approaches to improving the reading of middle and high school students: (1) reading curricula, (2) mixed‐method models (methods that combine large‐and small‐group instruction with computer activities), (3) computer‐assisted instruction, and (4) instructional‐process programs (methods that focus on providing teachers with extensive professional development to implement specific instructional methods). Criteria for inclusion in the study were use of randomized or matched control groups, a study duration of at least 12 weeks, and valid achievement measures that were independent of the experimental treatments. A total of 33 studies met these criteria. The review concludes that programs designed to change daily teaching practices have substantially greater research support than those focused on curriculum or technology alone. Positive achievement effects were found for instructional‐process programs, especially for those involving cooperative learning, and for mixed‐method programs. The effective approaches provided extensive professional development and significantly affected teaching practices. In contrast, no studies of reading curricula met the inclusion criteria, and the effects of supplementary computer‐assisted instruction were small. [Note: Robert Slavin discusses the research presented in this article in a podcast presented by the “Voice of Literacy”: http://www.voiceofliteracy.org/posts/27155]. تستعرض هذه المقالة بانتظام أبحاثاً علمية فيما يتعلق بالنتائج التحصيلية لأربعة أنواع من الاتجاهات التي تهدف إلى تحسين مهارة القراءة لدى الطلاب في الإعدادية والثانوية: (1) مناهج قرائية و(2) نماذج متعددة الطرق (أي الطرق التي تجمع بين تعليم مجموعات كبيرة وصغيرة وبين أنشطة حاسوبية) و(3) التعليم بمساعدة الحاسوب و(4) برامج عملية التعليم (أي الطرق التي تركز على توفير المعلمين بتطوير ممتد في الحرفة لتنفيذ طرق تعليمية معينة). وفيما يلي المعايير المحددة لكي تدخل معلومة في البحث أولاً استخدام مجموعات ضابطة ذات الصبغة العشوائية أو المتماثلة وثانياً لا تقل مدة البحث عن 12 أسبوعاً وثالثاً نتائج تحصيلية سليمة مستقلة عن العلاجات التجريبية وفي المجموع 33 بحثاً وفت بهذه المعايير. استنتجت هذه المراجعة أن البرامج المصممة لتغيير الممارسات التعليمية اليومية قد اكتسبت دعماً بحثياً أكثر بكثير من البرامج التي ركزت على المنهاج الدراسي أو التقنية فحسب. وقد تم إيجاد تأثيرات تحصيلية إيجابية للبرامج المبنية على عملية تعليمية لا سيما التي تشتمل على التعلم التعاوني والبرامج المتعددة الطرق. وقد وفرت الاتجاهات الفعالة التطوير الممتد للحرفة وأثرت على الممارسات التعليمية بشكل كبير وعلى النقيض من ذلك لم يفِ أي بحث علمي في المنهاج القرائي بمعايير دخول هذه الدراسة وكانت تأثيرات التعليم التكميلي بمساعدة الحاسوب ضئيلة. [Podcast: http://www.voiceofliteracy.org/posts/27155]. 本文有系统地回顾有关以四个不同途径改善初、高中生阅读成果的研究：(1)从学生阅读课程着手，(2)采用混合教学模式(结合了大班、小组授课和电脑活动的教学法)，(3)采用电脑辅助教学法，(4)采用教学过程训练课程(集中提供教师广泛的专业发展，帮助他们实施一些专门的教学法)。纳入研究回顾之标准为：研究采用随机样本或对照组，研究起码持续至十二周，学习成果考验方法正确有效，独立于不同实验组所进行的实验处理。有33个研究符合这些标准，被纳入回顾。本文的结论是：训练课程的设计若是针对改变教师的日常教学实践，较光是针对阅读课程或电脑科技，有更充分的研究实证支持。教学过程训练课程，尤其是那些采用合作...

This article explores India's linguistic diversity from a language policy perspective, emphasizing policies relevant to linguistic minorities. The Kumaun region of Utterakhand provides a local, minority-language perspective on nationallevel language planning. A look at the complexity of counting India's languages reveals language planning implicit in the Indian census. The more explicit status planning involved in the naming of official languages is explored in the Indian Constitution. An overview of India's language-in-education policies for languages to be taught and languages to be used as media of instruction further illustrates status and acquisitions planning affecting India's linguistic minorities. The Indian example informs and stretches the language planning frameworks used to analyze it, adding status-planning goals of legitimization, minimization, and protection. Finally, the question of what actually happens in education for linguistic minorities opens up a conversation about the pluralistic language practices common in multilingual contexts beyond the implementation of official language and education policies.

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Relations between francophones and anglophones in Québec City reflect historical struggles and changing power relations between the groups. Using a constructivist and interactionist approach to identity and ethnicity, we examine the role of English language schools in intergroup relations. We present findings from two qualitative studies conducted with youth who attended English language schools in Québec City, showing how the school system contributes to the (re)production of linguistic boundaries. The boundaries evident between language groups, as illustrated in student drawings and memories, reflect complex power relations between the groups. Taking into account these power relations and with reference to previous initiatives for addressing intergroup relations, we propose a pedagogical approach that incorporates the tools of critical pedagogy to improve intergroup relations in social contexts such as Québec City. Pedagogical activities using this critical approach would lead students to challenge power relations and intergroup categorization between anglophones and francophones in Québec.

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