Lipids, commonly including phospholipids, sphingolipids, fatty acids, sterols, and triacylglycerols (TAGs), are important biomolecules for the viability of all cells. Phospholipids, sphingolipids, and sterols are important constituents of biological membranes. Many lipids play important roles in the regulation of cell metabolism by acting as signaling molecules. Neutral lipids, including TAGs and sterol esters (STEs), are important storage lipids in cells. In view of the importance of lipid molecules, this review briefly summarizes the metabolic pathways for sterols, phospholipids, sphingolipids, fatty acids, and neutral lipids in fungi and illustrates the differences between fungal and human (or other mammalian) cells, especially in relation to lipid biosynthetic pathways. These differences might provide valuable clues for us to find target proteins for novel antifungal drugs. In addition, the development of lipidomics technology in recent years has supplied us with a shortcut for finding new antifungal drug targets; this ability is important for guiding our research on pathogenic fungi.

Wooden shipwrecks are a significant part of the underwater cultural heritage. In 2007, the Nanhai No. 1 shipwreck was salvaged from the seabed and moved into the Marine Silk Road Museum, where it is still stored in a water tank. We analysed the microbial communities colonizing the hull surface of the Nanhai No. 1 shipwreck during storage. Six samples exposed to air were collected from different spots of the ship that exhibited obvious microbial plaques. High-throughput sequencing revealed the bacterial community includes both aquatic and terrestrial species, while in the fungal community, Fusarium was the most abundant genus across all samples and accounted for 84.91% to 98.40% of the total community composition. Two Fusarium species were isolated from the samples and were identified as F. solani and F. oxysporum. Both of the isolates were able to degrade cellulose, but only F. solani had the ability to degrade lignin. Antimicrobial efficacy in inhibiting the growth of Fusarium was assessed with five kinds of biocides, and isothiazolinones exhibited specific inhibition of Fusarium growth. These results provide critical background information to protect and reduce the biodegradation and destruction of this important historical shipwreck, and inform efforts to protect other similar artifacts.

In the storeroom C7 of the Tianjin Museum, one wooden desk and two leather luggages dated back to Qing dynasty (1644-1912 AD) presented viable microbial contamination. The aim of the present study was to investigate microbial communities responsible for the biodeterioration of storeroom objects using a combination of culture-independent and culture-dependent methods as well microscopic techniques. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that the microflora on three storeroom objects were characterized by a marked presence of Eurotium halophilicum. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis proved that fungi were the main causative agents behind the biodeterioration in this case. Fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) amplicon sequencing documented the presence of two main fungi — Eurotium halophilicum and Aspergillus penicillioides. Molecular identification of fungal strains isolated from the surfaces and the air of the storeroom were most closely related to Chaetomium, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium, showing discrepancies in fungal taxa compared to ITS amplicon sequencing. The most isolated bacterial phylum was Firmicutes, mostly Bacillus members. In addition, four biocide products — Preventol® D 7, P 91, 20 N and Euxyl® K 100 were selected to test their capability against fungal strains isolated from the surfaces. According to the susceptibility assay, Preventol® D 7 based on isothiazolinones was the most effective against fungal isolates. Findings from this study provided a knowledge about storeroom fungi, and exemplify a type of preliminary test that may be conducted before planning any biocide treatment, which may be useful to mitigate the fungal deterioration for further conservation of the museum.

To protect the lacquer plates from the Nanhai No. 1 shipwreck from being corroded by microorganisms, a series of studies were conducted on the four water-stored samples. The water samples were collected from the vessel where the lacquerware was stored in June and December 2017. In our study, high-throughput sequencing was conducted to reveal predominant bacterial communities. Then, three different media were used to isolate the dominant bacteria, and the 16S rRNA genes were sequenced. Next, we tested the degradation activity of lignin and cellulose by the isolated bacterial strains. After being cultured on a medium containing carboxylmethylcellulose (CMC), almost all the isolated strains (except Microbacterium sp. NK-NH4, Ochrobactrum sp. NK-NH9, and Bacillus megaterium NK-NH10) showed the capacity for cellulose degradation. In addition, the lignin peroxidase (Lip) and laccase activity of the strains were shown by culturing the strains on one medium with azure and on another medium with Remazol brilliant blue. The results indicated that the Lip activity of all the strains was low, whereas the laccase activity of Microbacterium sp. NK-NH4, Bacillus tequilensis NK-NH5, Bacillus subtilis NK-NH6, Bacillus megaterium NK-NH10, and Bacillus velezensis NK-NH11 was relatively high. Finally, we tested the bacteriostatic efficacy of four biocides—Preventol® D7, BIT 20N, P91, and Euxyl® K100. We found that most strains were sensitive to D7 and 20N, while K100 had almost no impact.

The goal of this research was to analyze the fungal community responsible for the biodeterioration of a pirogue in the National Maritime Museum of China and to make recommendations for the protection of this artifact. Molecular identification of fungal strains isolated from the surface of the pirogue and the air of the storage room that were most closely related to Cladosporium, Penicillium, Talaromyces and Trichoderma spp. DNA extracted from the samples was sequenced on the Illumina MiSeq platform. The results showed that the predominant fungal genera present were Penicillium sp., Cladosporium sp. and Exophiala sp. Thereafter, cellulose degradation experiments were carried out on the predominant fungi screened by pure culturing. Finally, we tested the sensitivity of the predominant fungal isolates to four biocides. This work suggests that we should pay more attention to Penicillium sp. and Cladosporium sp. in the protection of wooden artifacts, and environmental control is recommended as the main means of protecting the pirogue.

The Mausoleum of the Dingtao King (termed ‘M2’) is a large-scale huangchang ticou tomb that dates to the Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.–25 A.D.). It is the highest-ranking Han Dynasty tomb discovered to date. However, biodeterioration on the surface of the tomb M2 is causing severe damage to its wooden materials. The aim of the present study was to give insight into the fungal communities colonized the wooden tomb. For this purpose, seven samples were collected from different sections of the tomb M2 which exhibited obvious biodeterioration in the form of white spots. Microbial structures associated with the white spots were observed with scanning electron microscopy. Fungal community structures were assessed for seven samples via a combination of high-throughput sequencing and culture-dependent techniques. Sequencing analyses identified 114 total genera that belonged to five fungal phyla. Hypochnicium was the most abundant genus across all samples and accounted for 98.61–99.45% of the total community composition. Further, Hypochnicium sp. and Mortierella sp. cultures were successfully isolated from the tomb samples, and were distinguished as Hypochnicium sp. WY-DT1 and Mortierella sp. NK-DT1, respectively. Cultivation-dependent experiments indicated that the dominant member, Hypochnicium sp. WY- DT1, could grow at low temperatures and significantly degraded cellulose and lignin. Thus, our results taken together suggest that this fungal strain must be regarded as a serious threat to the preservation of the wooden tomb M2. The results reported here are useful for informing future contamination mitigation efforts for the tomb M2 as well as other similar cultural artifacts.

To avoid the lacquerware of the Nanhai No. 1 shipwreck from being corroded by microorganisms and to improve the knowledge on microbial ecology of the wood lacquers, we conducted a series of tests on the two water samples storing the lacquerware and colonies on the surface of the lacquerware. The high-throughput sequencing detected dominant fungal communities. After that, the fungal strains were isolated and then identified by amplification of ITS- 18S rRNA. Then the activity of ligninolytic and cellulolytic enzymes was detected on potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates with 0.04% (v/v) guaiacol and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) agar plates. Finally, we tested the biocide susceptibility of these fungi. Penicillium chrysogenum (NK-NH3) and Fusarium solani (NK- NH1) were the dominant fungi in the sample collected in April 2016 and June 2017. What is more, both showed activity of ligninolytic and cellulolytic enzymes. Four biocidal products (Preventol® D7, P91, BIT 20N, and Euxyl® K100) inhibited the growth of the fungal species in vitro effectively. In further research, the microbial community and environmental parameters in the museum should be monitored to assess the changes in the community and to detect potential microbial outbreaks.

The 16SrDNA of total microbial DNA in 26 soil samples from three mining areas of an oil field was analyzed by high-throughput sequencing. The study found that the local microbial species in the mining area were rich, the pedigree was developed, and the dominant species were obvious. The differences in soil bacterial and fungal communities among the three mining areas were far greater than those within the group of four types of samples in the three mining areas. The study shows that the impact of chemical flooding on the local biodiversity of the oilfield is not different, and the impact on the local biodiversity of the oilfield mining area is large. There is no destructive impact on the environment.