We present a probabilistic model to monitor a user's emotions and engagement during the interaction with educational games. We illustrate how our probabilistic model assesses affect by integrating evidence on both possible causes of the user's emotional arousal (i.e., the state of the interaction) and its effects (i.e., bodily expressions that are known to be influenced by emotional reactions). The probabilistic model relies on a Dynamic Decision Network to leverage any indirect evidence on the user's emotional state, in order to estimate this state and any other related variable in the model. This is crucial in a modeling task in which the available evidence usually varies with the user and with each particular interaction. The probabilistic model we present is to be used by decision theoretic pedagogical agents to generate interventions aimed at achieving the best tradeoff between a user's learning and engagement during the interaction with educational games.2

We present a probabilistic model of user affect designed to allow an intelligent agent to recognise multiple user emotions during the interaction with an educational computer game. Our model is based on a probabilistic framework that deals with the high level of uncertainty involved in recognizing a variety of user emotions by combining in a Dynamic Bayesian Network information on both the causes and effects of emotional reactions. The part of the framework that reasons from causes to emotions (diagnostic model) implements a theoretical model of affect, the OCC model, which accounts for how emotions are caused by one's appraisal of the current context in terms of one's goals and preferences. The advantage of using the OCC model is that it provides an affective agent with explicit information not only on which emotions a user feels but also why, thus increasing the agent's capability to effectively respond to the users' emotions. The challenge is that building the model requires having mechanisms to assess user goals and how the environment fits them, a form of plan recognition. In this paper, we illustrate how we built the predictive part of the affective model by combining general theories with empirical studies to adapt the theories to our target application domain. We then present results on the model's accuracy, showing that the model achieves good accuracy on several of the target emotions. We also discuss the model's limitations, to open the ground for the next stage of the work, i.e., complementing the model with diagnostic information.

Abstract. The long-term goal of our research is to design information visualization systems that adapt to the specific needs, characteristics, and context of each individual viewer. In order to successfully perform such adaptation, it is crucial to first identify characteristics that influence an individual user's effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction with a particular information visualization type. In this paper, we present a study that focuses on investigating the impact of four user characteristics (perceptual speed, verbal working memory, visual working memory, and user expertise) on the effectiveness of two common data visualization techniques: bar graphs and radar graphs. Our results show that certain user characteristics do in fact have a significant effect on task efficiency, user preference, and ease of use. We conclude with a discussion of how our findings could be effectively used for an adaptive visualization system. Keywords: User characteristics, User Evaluation, Adaptive Information Visualization. IntroductionInformation visualization is a thriving area of research in the study of human/computer communication. Though the field has made substantial progress in measuring and formalizing visualization effectiveness, results and suggestions from the literature are sometimes inconclusive and conflicting [19]. We believe this may be attributed to the fact that existing visualizations are designed mostly around the target data set and associated task model, with little consideration for user differences. Both long term user characteristics (e.g., cognitive abilities and expertise) and short term factors (e.g., cognitive load and attention) have often been overlooked in the design of information visualizations, despite studies linking individual differences to visualization efficacy for search and navigation tasks [1,8], for information seeking tasks [7,25], as well as anecdotal evidence of diverse personal visualization preferences [3]. Our long term goal is to explore the possibilities of user-centered visualizations, which understand that different users have different visualization needs and abilities, and which can adapt to these differences. However, before adaptation strategies can be effectively specified, we believe that the influence of user characteristics on visua-

Abstract. This paper describes the student modeling component of ANDES, an Intelligent Tutoring System for Newtonian physics. ANDES' student model uses a Bayesian network to do long-term knowledge assessment, plan recognition and prediction of students' actions during problem solving. The network is updated in real time, using an approximate anytime algorithm based on stochastic sampling, as a student solves problems with ANDES. The information in the student model is used by ANDES' Help system to tailor its support when the student reaches impasses in the problem solving process. In this paper, we describe the knowledge structures represented in the student model and discuss the implementation of the Bayesian network assessor. We also present a preliminary evaluation of the time performance of stochastic sampling algorithms to update the network.

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