Self-assembling polymers and nanostructured polymer thin films are being actively explored as advanced coatings for marine and biomedical applications. This review highlights recent advances in the design and synthesis of polymers that can resist fouling by biomolecules, cells and organisms. Current understanding of the mechanisms of anti-biofouling activity is also discussed.

An amphiphilic triblock surface-active block copolymer (SABC) possessing ethoxylated fluoroalkyl side chains was synthesized through the chemical modification of a polystyrene-block-poly(ethylene-ran-butylene)-block-polyisoprene polymer precursor. Bilayer coatings on glass slides consisting of a thin layer of the amphiphilic SABC spray coated on a thick layer of a polystyrene-block-poly(ethylene-ran-butylene)-block-polystyrene (SEBS) thermoplastic elastomer were prepared for biofouling assays with the green alga Ulva and the diatom Navicula. Dynamic water contact angle analysis and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were used to characterize the surfaces. Additionally, the effect of the Young's modulus of the coating on the release properties of sporelings (young plants) of the green alga Ulva was examined through the use of two different SEBS thermoplastic elastomers possessing modulus values of an order of magnitude in difference. The amphiphilic SABC was found to reduce the settlement density of zoospores of Ulva as well as the strength of attachment of sporelings. The attachment strength of the sporelings was further reduced for the amphiphilic SABC on the "low"-modulus SEBS base layer. The weaker adhesion of diatoms, relative to a PDMS standard, further highlights the antifouling potential of this amphiphilic triblock hybrid copolymer.

Two series of amphiphilic triblock surface active block copolymers (SABCs) were prepared through chemical modification of two polystyrene-block-poly(ethylene-ran-butylene)-block-polyisoprene ABC triblock copolymer precursors. The methyl ether of poly(ethylene glycol) [M(n) approximately 550 g/mol (PEG550)] and a semifluorinated alcohol (CF(3)(CF(2))(9)(CH(2))(10)OH) [F10H10] were attached at different molar ratios to impart both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups to the isoprene segment. Coatings on glass slides consisting of a thin layer of the amphiphilic SABC deposited on a thicker layer of an ABA polystyrene-block-poly(ethylene-ran-butylene)-block-polystyrene thermoplastic elastomer were prepared for biofouling assays with algae. Dynamic water contact angle analysis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) measurements were utilized to characterize the surfaces. Clear differences in surface structure were realized as the composition of attached side chains was varied. In biofouling assays, the settlement (attachment) of zoospores of the green alga Ulva was higher for surfaces incorporating a large proportion of the hydrophobic F10H10 side chains, while surfaces with a large proportion of the PEG550 side chains inhibited settlement. The trend in attachment strength of sporelings (young plants) of Ulva did not show such an obvious pattern. However, amphiphilic SABCs incorporating a mixture of PEG550 and F10H10 side chains performed the best. The number of cells of the diatom Navicula attached after exposure to flow decreased as the content of PEG550 to F10H10 side chains increased.

Fluorine-free, amphiphilic, nonionic surface active block copolymers (SABCs) were synthesized through chemical modification of a polystyrene-block-poly(ethylene-ran-butylene)-block-polyisoprene triblock copolymer precursor with selected amphiphilic nonionic Brij and other surfactants. Amphiphilicity was imparted by a hydrophobic aliphatic group combined with a hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) group-containing moiety. The surfaces were characterized by dynamic water contact angle, atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and near edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) analysis. In biofouling assays, settlement (attachment) of both spores of the green alga Ulva and cells of the diatom Navicula on SABCs modified with Brij nonionic side chains was significantly reduced relative to a PDMS standard, with a nonionic surfactant combining a PEG group and an aliphatic moiety demonstrating the best performance. Additionally, a fouling-release assay using sporelings (young plants) of Ulva and Navicula suggested that the SABC derived from nonionic Brij side chains also out-performed PDMS as a fouling-release material. Good antifouling and fouling-release properties were not demonstrated for the other two amphiphilic surfaces derived from silicone and aromatic group containing nonionic surfactants included in this study. The results suggest that small differences in chemical surface functionality impart more significant changes with respect to the antifouling settlement and fouling-release performance of materials than overall wettability behavior.

Surface active block copolymers (SABCs) with amphiphilic side chains containing ethoxylated fluoroalkyl groups have previously demonstrated advantageous properties with regard to marine fouling resistance and release. While it was previously postulated that the ability of the block copolymer surface to undergo an environment-dependent transformation in surface structure aided this behaviour, protein adsorption characteristics of the surface were never explored. This study aims to expand our knowledge of protein interaction with the amphiphilic surface active block copolymer in an aqueous environment through experiments with bovine serum albumin (BSA), a widely utilized test protein. Fluorescence microscopy analysis using BSA labelled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (BSA-FITC) was performed on a SABC test surface to establish the polymer's protein adsorption resistance. Additionally, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based chemical force microscopy (CFM) was utilized to examine the force of adhesion of an AFM tip functionalized with strands of BSA protein with the SABC. No measurable force of adhesion was detected for 58% of the measurements of adhesion force taken for a BSA coated AFM tip interacting with the surface of the amphiphilic SABC in a PBS buffer. Furthermore, no measurements of force of adhesion were made in excess of 0.15 nN. This was in contrast to the non-zero mean adhesion force seen for several control surfaces in PBS buffer.

Fluorine-free mixed amphiphilic block copolymers with mixtures of short side groups of polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) were synthesized and studied for their ability to influence the surface properties and control the adhesion of marine organisms to coated surfaces. The settlement (attachment) and strength of adhesion of two different marine algae, the green seaweed Ulva and the diatom Navicula, were evaluated against the surfaces. It is known that hydrophobic coatings based on polydimethyl siloxane elastomers (PDMSe) are prone to protein adsorption and accumulation of strongly adherent diatom slimes, in contrast to PEG-based hydrophilic surfaces that inhibit protein adsorption and moderate only weak adhesion of diatoms. By incorporating both PDMS and PEG side chains into the polymers, the effect of incorporating both polar and non-polar groups on fouling-release could be studied. The dry surfaces were characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (NEXAFS). The ability of these mixed amphiphilic polymers to reconstruct in water was examined using underwater bubble contact angle and dynamic water contact angle experiments. To understand more about surface reconstruction behavior, protein adsorption experiments were carried out with fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled bovine serum albumin (BSA-FITC) on both dry and pre-soaked surfaces.

Semifluorinated-quaternized triblock copolymers (SQTCs) were synthesized by chemical modification of polystyrene-block-poly(ethylene-ran-butylene)-block-polyisoprene ABC triblock copolymers. Surface characterization of the polymers was performed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) analysis. The surface of the SQTC showed very high antibacterial activity against the airborne bacterium Staphylococcus aureus with >99 % inhibition of growth. In contrast in marine fouling assays, zoospores of the green alga Ulva settled on the SQTC, which can be attributed to the positively charged surface. The adhesion strength of sporelings (young plants) of Ulva and Navicula diatoms (a unicellular alga) was high. The SQTC did not show marked algicidal activity.

Six well defined PS-b-PB 1,2 diblock copolymers (PS: polystyrene and PB: polybutadiene) with almost 100% of 1,2 microstructure for the PB segment were synthesized. Size exclusion chromatography (SEC), membrane osmometry (MO) and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1 H NMR) were used for verification of the molecular characteristics and the 100%-1,2 addition for the PB blocks. Modification with heptanoyl or pentadecafluorooctanoyl chloride was accomplished via hydroboration and subsequent oxidation, leading to hydroxylated PB blocks and was verified with 1 H NMR and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Only two samples were modified with both organic acid chloride derivatives. Structural characterization was accomplished via transmission electron mi-croscopy (TEM) and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) in all cases. The self-assembly was more evident in the modified copolymers with the corresponding halides due to the increase of the molecular weight of the modified PB block. Taking into consideration the vN values in each case and comparing the results with those of PS-b-PI copolymers already reported in the literature the discrepancies with the theoretical predictions are very small or minimal. V