Recent adoption of national rules for organic crop production have stimulated greater interest in meeting crop N needs using manures, composts, and other organic materials. This study was designed to provide data to support Extension recommendations for organic amendments. Specifically, our objectives were to (i) measure decomposition and N released from fresh and composted amendments and (ii) evaluate the performance of the model DECOMPOSITION, a relatively simple N mineralization/immobilization model, as a predictor of N availability. Amendment samples were aerobically incubated in moist soil in the laboratory at 22 degrees C for 70 d to determine decomposition and plant-available nitrogen (PAN) (n = 44), and they were applied preplant to a sweet corn crop to determine PAN via fertilizer N equivalency (n = 37). Well-composted materials (n = 14) had a single decomposition rate, averaging 0.003 d(-1). For uncomposted materials, decomposition was rapid (>0.01 d(-1)) for the first 10 to 30 d. The laboratory incubation and the full-season PAN determination in the field gave similar estimates of PAN across amendments. The linear regression equation for lab PAN vs. field PAN had a slope not different from one and a y-intercept not different than zero. Much of the PAN released from amendments was recovered in the first 30 d. Field and laboratory measurements of PAN were strongly related to PAN estimated by DECOMPOSITION (r(2) > 0.7). Modeled PAN values were typically higher than observed PAN, particularly for amendments exhibiting high initial NH(4)-N concentrations or rapid decomposition. Based on our findings, we recommend that guidance publications for manure and compost utilization include short-term (28-d) decomposition and PAN estimates that can be useful to both modelers and growers.

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Cover crop benefits include nitrogen accumulation and retention, weed suppression, organic matter maintenance, and reduced erosion. Organic farmers need region-specific information on winter cover crop performance to effectively integrate cover crops into their crop rotations. Our research objective was to compare cover crop seeding mixtures, planting dates, and termination dates on performance of rye (Secale cereale L.) and hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth) monocultures and mixtures in the maritime Pacific Northwest USA. The study included four seed mixtures (100% hairy vetch, 25% rye-75% hairy vetch, 50% rye-50% hairy vetch, and 100% rye by seed weight), two planting dates, and two termination dates, using a split-split plot design with four replications over six years. Measurements included winter ground cover; stand composition; cover crop biomass, N concentration, and N uptake; and June soil NO3 --N. Rye planted in mid-September and terminated in late April averaged 5.1 Mg ha-1 biomass, whereas mixtures averaged 4.1 Mg ha-1 and hairy vetch 2.3 Mg ha-1. Delaying planting by 2.5 weeks reduced average winter ground cover by 65%, biomass by 50%, and cover crop N accumulation by 40%. Similar reductions in biomass and N accumulation occurred for late March termination, compared with late April termination. Mixtures had less annual biomass variability than rye. Mixtures accumulated 103 kg ha-1 N and had mean C:N ratio <17:1 when planted in mid-September and terminated in late April. June soil NO3 --N (0 to 30 cm depth) averaged 62 kg ha-1 for rye, 97 kg ha-1 for the mixtures, and 119 kg ha-1 for hairy vetch. Weeds comprised less of the mixtures biomass (20% weeds by weight at termination) compared with the monocultures (29%). Cover crop mixtures provided a balance between biomass accumulation and N concentration, more consistent biomass over the six-year study, and were more effective at reducing winter weeds compared with monocultures.

Antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) enter the environment through municipal and agricultural waste streams and pose a potential risk to human and livestock health through either direct exposure to antibiotic-resistant pathogens or selective pressure on the soil microbial community. This review summarizes current literature on the fate of antibiotics, ARB, and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) during anaerobic digestion and composting of manure and wastewater residuals. Studies have shown that removal of antibiotics varies widely during mesophilic anaerobic digestion, even within the same class of antibiotics. Research on ARB shows a wide range of removal under mesophilic conditions, with nearly complete removal under thermophilic conditions. Research on 16 antibiotics in 11 different studies using both bench-scale and farm-scale composting systems demonstrates that composting significantly reduces levels of extractable antibiotics in livestock manure in nearly all cases. Calculated half-lives ranged from 0.9 to 16 d for most antibiotics. There is more limited evidence that levels of ARB are also reduced by composting. Studies of the fate of ARGs show mixed evidence for removal during both mesophilic and thermophilic anaerobic digestion and during thermophilic composting. Antibiotic resistance genes are DNA structures, so they may persist until the DNA structure is degraded, yet the bacterium may have been rendered nonviable long before the DNA is completely degraded. Additional research would be of value to determine optimum anaerobic digestion and composting conditions for removal of ARB and to increase understanding of the fate of ARGs during anaerobic digestion and composting.

Repeated applications of municipal wastewater biosolids is cost effective for biosolids managers, but may lead to undesirable accumulations of nutrients or contaminants. We evaluated the effects of seven years of biosolids applications on tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) production and nutrient availability. We compared two types of Class A biosolids applied to tall fescue on a sandy loam in western Washington. Mean annual biosolids rates of 290, 580, and 870 kg total N ha(-1) yr(-1) were compared with inorganic N and zero-N controls using a randomized complete block design. We measured yield and N uptake for each forage harvest, plant tissue metals at selected harvests, soil nitrate each fall, diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA)-extractable metals after five years of applications, and soil pH, available P, and organic C after seven years. Forage yields increased with biosolids rate. Apparent nitrogen recovery (ANR) for biosolids averaged 18% in 1993 (Year 1), 35% in 1994, and 46% in 1999. The ANR for inorganic N averaged 62% from 1994-1999. Residual soil nitrate was less than 25 kg ha(-1) for all treatments through 1995, but increased beginning in 1996 for the high biosolids rate. Biosolids increased soil organic C levels by 2 to 5 g kg(-1) and Bray-1 P levels by 300 to 600 mg kg(-1) (0-15 cm depth). Plant tissue Zn increased from 24 to 66 mg kg(-1) at the highest application rate. Nearly all of the DTPA-extractable metals remained in the 0- to 8-cm soil depth.

Bioretention systems rely on vegetation and mixtures of soil, sand, and compost to filter stormwater runoff. However, bioretention systems can also leach metals and nutrients, and compost may be a major contributor to this leaching. To safely implement bioretention systems, it is crucial to determine the composition of compost leachate. We characterized and quantified the leachate composition of compost following intermittent, simulated storm events. Columns of municipal compost were irrigated to simulate 6-month, 24-hour rain storms in the Seattle-Tacoma region. Outflow was analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), particulate concentration, surface tension, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), nitrogen, phosphorus, and copper. Results indicate a decrease of chemical concentrations over the course of individual storms and following repeated storms, but each new storm released another peak of constituents. The decrease in phosphorus, copper, and DOC concentrations with repeated storms was slower than for nitrate and EC. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) showed that the DOC consisted mainly of aliphatic and aromatic components typical of fulvic and humic acids. Less than 3% of the original copper content from the compost leached out even after nine storm events. Nonetheless, copper concentrations in the leachate exceeded regulatory discharge standards. Our results show that compost can serve as a sustained source of leaching of nutrients and metals.

This study was conducted to quantify soil C storage, N concentration, available P, and water holding capacity (WHC) across a range of sites in Washington State. Composts or biosolids had been applied to each site either annually at agronomic rates or at a one-time high rate. Site ages ranged from 2 to 18 years. For all but one site sampled, addition of organic amendments resulted in significant increases in soil carbon storage. Rates of carbon storage per dry Mg of amendment ranged from 0.014 (not significant) in a long-term study of turf grass to 0.54 in a commercial orchard. Soils with the lowest initial C levels had the highest rates of amendment carbon storage (r(2) = 0.37, p < 0.001). Excess C stored with use of amendments in comparison with control fields ranged from 8 to 72 Mg ha(-1). For sites with data over time, C content increased or stabilized. Increases in total N were observed at all sites, with increased WHC and available P observed at a majority of sites. Using a 50 Mg ha application rate, benefits of application of biosolids and compost ranged from 7 to 33 Mg C ha. This estimate does not account for yield increases or water conservation savings.

Organic cropping systems that utilize winter grown cereal–legume cover crop mixtures can increase plant available nitrogen (N) to a subsequent cash crop, but the rate of N release is uncertain due to variations in residue composition and environmental conditions. A study was conducted to evaluate N availability from rye (Secale cereale L.)–hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth) cover crop mixtures and to measure the response of organically grown sweet corn (Zea mays L.) to N provided by cover crop mixtures. Nitrogen availability from pure rye, pure hairy vetch, and rye–vetch mixtures was estimated using laboratory incubation with controlled temperature and soil moisture. Sweet corn N response was determined in a 2-year field experiment in western Washington with three cover crop treatments as main plots (50:50 rye–vetch seed mixture planted mid September, planted early October, and none) and four feather meal N rates as subplots (0, 56, 112 and 168 kg available N ha−1). Pure hairy vetch and a 75% rye–25% hairy vetch biomass mixture (R75V25) released similar amounts of N over 70 days in the laboratory incubation. But, the initial release of N from the (R75V25) treatment was nearly 70% lower, which may result in N release that is better timed with crop uptake. Cover crops in the field were dominated by rye and contained 34–76 kg ha−1 total N with C:N ranging from 18 to 27. Although time of planting and management of cover crop quality improved N uptake in sweet corn, cover crops provided only supplemental plant available N in this system.