Autocrine VEGF is necessary for endothelial survival, although the cellular mechanisms supporting this function are unknown. Here, we show that -even after full differentiation and maturation -continuous expression of VEGF by endothelial cells is needed to sustain vascular integrity and cellular viability. Depletion of VEGF from the endothelium results in mitochondria fragmentation and suppression of glucose metabolism, leading to increased autophagy that contributes to cell death. Gene-expression profiling showed that endothelial VEGF contributes to the regulation of cell cycle and mitochondrial gene clusters, as well as several -but not all -targets of the transcription factor FOXO1. Indeed, VEGF-deficient endothelium in vitro and in vivo showed increased levels of FOXO1 protein in the nucleus and cytoplasm. Silencing of FOXO1 in VEGF-depleted cells reversed expression profiles of several of the gene clusters that were de-regulated in VEGF knockdown, and rescued both cell death and autophagy phenotypes. Our data suggest that endothelial VEGF maintains vascular homeostasis through regulation of FOXO1 levels, thereby ensuring physiological metabolism and endothelial cell survival.

BackgroundUnderstanding the interactions between ion channels and blockers remains an important goal that has implications for delineating the basic mechanisms of ion channel function and for the discovery and development of ion channel directed drugs.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe used genetic selection methods to probe the interaction of two ion channel blockers, barium and amantadine, with the miniature viral potassium channel Kcv. Selection for Kcv mutants that were resistant to either blocker identified a mutant bearing multiple changes that was resistant to both. Implementation of a PCR shuffling and backcrossing procedure uncovered that the blocker resistance could be attributed to a single change, T63S, at a position that is likely to form the binding site for the inner ion in the selectivity filter (site 4). A combination of electrophysiological and biochemical assays revealed a distinct difference in the ability of the mutant channel to interact with the blockers. Studies of the analogous mutation in the mammalian inward rectifier Kir2.1 show that the T→S mutation affects barium block as well as the stability of the conductive state. Comparison of the effects of similar barium resistant mutations in Kcv and Kir2.1 shows that neighboring amino acids in the Kcv selectivity filter affect blocker binding.Conclusions/SignificanceThe data support the idea that permeant ions have an integral role in stabilizing potassium channel structure, suggest that both barium and amantadine act at a similar site, and demonstrate how genetic selections can be used to map blocker binding sites and reveal mechanistic features.

Summary Vascular permeability is frequently associated with inflammation and triggered by a cohort of secreted permeability factors such as VEGF. Here we show that the physiological vascular permeability that precedes implantation is directly controlled by progesterone receptor (PR) and is independent of VEGF. Both global and endothelial-specific deletion of PR block physiological vascular permeability in the uterus whereas misexpression of PR in the endothelium of other organs results in ectopic vascular leakage. Integration of an endothelial genome-wide transcriptional profile with ChIP-sequencing revealed that PR induces a NR4A1 (Nur77/TR3)-dependent transcriptional program that broadly regulates vascular permeability in response to progesterone. Silencing of NR4A1 blocks PR-mediated permeability responses indicating a direct link between PR and NR4A1. This program triggers concurrent suppression of several junctional proteins and leads to an effective, timely and venous-specific regulation of vascular barrier function that is critical to embryo implantation.

The last five years have witnessed a significant expansion in our understanding of VEGF signaling. In particular, the process of canonical activation of VEGFR tyrosine kinases by homodimeric VEGF molecules have now been broadened by the realization that heterodimeric ligands and receptors are also active participants in the signaling process. While heterodimer receptors were described two decades ago, their impact, along with the effect of additional cell surface partners and novel autocrine VEGF signaling pathways, are only now starting to be clarified. Furthermore, ligand-independent signaling (non-canonical) has been identified which occurs through galectin and gremlin binding, and upon rise of intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species. Activation of the VEGF receptors in the absence of ligand holds immediate implications for therapeutic approaches that exclusively target VEGF. The present review provides a concise summary of the recent developments in both canonical and non-canonical VEGF signaling and places these findings in perspective to their potential clinical and biological ramifications.

Autocrine VEGF is necessary for endothelial survival, although the cellular mechanisms supporting this function are unknown. Here, we show that -even after full differentiation and maturation -continuous expression of VEGF by endothelial cells is needed to sustain vascular integrity and cellular viability. Depletion of VEGF from the endothelium results in mitochondria fragmentation and suppression of glucose metabolism, leading to increased autophagy that contributes to cell death. Gene-expression profiling showed that endothelial VEGF contributes to the regulation of cell cycle and mitochondrial gene clusters, as well as several -but not all -targets of the transcription factor FOXO1. Indeed, VEGF-deficient endothelium in vitro and in vivo showed increased levels of FOXO1 protein in the nucleus and cytoplasm. Silencing of FOXO1 in VEGF-depleted cells reversed expression profiles of several of the gene clusters that were de-regulated in VEGF knockdown, and rescued both cell death and autophagy phenotypes. Our data suggest that endothelial VEGF maintains vascular homeostasis through regulation of FOXO1 levels, thereby ensuring physiological metabolism and endothelial cell survival.

Purpose of Review This review offers a concise summary of the most recent experimental advances in vascular development using the mouse as a model organism. Recent Findings Recent mouse studies have revealed a spread of phenotypic diversity between endothelia of distinct developmental origins and organs. For example, expression of unique transcription factors distinguishes hemogenic from non-hemogenic endothelium within the same vessel. Vasculature of the brain is particularly susceptible to endothelial malformations due to combinatorial germline and somatic mutations; surprisingly these mutations can afflict the endothelium by either cell autonomous or paracrine effects. Mutant mice have been used to understand how multiple signaling pathways integrate and refine cellular responses. In particular, we learned how VEGFR3 regulates Notch signaling and EphrinB2 coordinates VEGFR2 responses. The regulation of Prox1 by miR181 highlighted the contribution of microRNAs in the induction of lymphatic endothelium. Information gained on heterotypic interactions has further clarified the influence of blood vessels on the morphogenesis of parenchyma and contributed to our understanding of organ-specific endothelial differentiation. Finally, mouse models have uncovered endothelial cell polarity as a keystone for successful vascular lumenization. Summary Our understanding of the process of vascular development has gained significant refinement in the last two years and has clarified the origin of several disorders rooted in development.

The distribution and patterning of blood vessels is controlled by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which is precisely regulated throughout its life cycle. Okabe et al. show that VEGF is titrated away from the endothelium by adjacent neurons via endocytosis, regulating density and trajectory of blood vessels.

During angiogenesis, new blood vessels headed by a migrating endothelial tip cell sprout from preexisting ones. This process is known to be regulated by two signaling pathways concurrently, vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) and Notch-Delta. Extracellular VEGFA activates the intracellular Notch-Delta pathway in nearby endothelial cells which results in endothelial (stalk, tip) differentiation. Retinal astrocytes appear to play a crucial role in polarizing new sprouts by secreting VEGFA. In vivo retinal angiogenesis experiments in neonatal mouse generated quantitative data on daily cell counts and morphological data of vascular network expanding over fibronectin-rich matrix. Based on this set of data and other existing ones, we developed a cell-based, multiscale mathematical model using the cellular Potts model framework to investigate the sprout evolution by integrating the VEGFA and Notch-Delta signaling pathways. The model incorporates three levels of description: 1) intracellular: each endothelial cell incorporates the VEGFA-activated Notch-Delta signaling pathway, 2) intercellular: tip and stalk endothelial phenotypes along the sprout are dynamically (depending on cell growth, cell-cell adhesion) interchangeable based on their Delta level, and 3) extracellular: the astrocyte-derived VEGFA acts as a chemoattractant and, together with the extracellular matrix (ECM) network, guides cell migration leading to sprout evolution and morphology. Starting with a single astrocyte embedded in a fibronectinrich matrix, we use the model to assess different scenarios regarding VEGFA levels and its interaction with matrix proteins. Simulation results suggest that astrocyte-derived VEGFA gradients along with heterogeneous ECM reproduces sprouting morphology, and the extension speed is in agreement with experimental data in 7 days postnatal mouse retina. Results also reproduce empirical observations in sprouting angiogenesis, including anastomosis, dynamic tip cell competition, and sprout regression as a result of Notch blockade.