Summary NGF and NT3 collaborate to support development of sympathetic neurons. Although both neurotrophins activate TrkA-dependent axonal extension, NGF is unique in its ability to promote retrograde transport of TrkA endosomes and retrograde survival. Here, we report that actin depolymerization is essential for initiation of NGF/TrkA endosome trafficking and that a Rac1–cofilin signaling module associated with TrkA early endosomes supports their maturation to retrograde transport-competent endosomes. Moreover, the actin-regulatory endosomal components are absent from NT3-formed TrkA endosomes, explaining the failure of NT3 to support retrograde TrkA transport and survival. The inability of NT3 to activate Rac1-GTP–cofilin signaling is likely due to the labile nature of NT3/TrkA complexes within the acidic environment of TrkA early endosomes. Thus, TrkA endosomes associate with actin-modulatory proteins to promote F-actin disassembly enabling their maturation into transport-competent signaling endosomes. Differential control of this process explains how NGF in final targets, but not NT3 from intermediate targets, supports retrograde survival of sympathetic neurons.

We report a novel role for long-distance retrograde neurotrophin signaling in the establishment of synapses in the sympathetic nervous system. Target-derived NGF is both necessary and sufficient for formation of post-synaptic specializations on dendrites of sympathetic neurons. This, in turn, is prerequisite for formation of pre-synaptic specializations but not preganglionic axonal ingrowth from the spinal cord into sympathetic ganglia. We also find that NGF–TrkA signaling endosomes travel from distal axons to cell bodies and dendrites where they promote PSD clustering. Furthermore, the p75 neurotrophin receptor restricts PSD formation, suggesting an important role for antagonistic NGF–TrkA and p75 signaling pathways during retrograde control of synapse establishment. Thus, in addition to defining the appropriate number of sympathetic neurons that survive the period of developmental cell death, target-derived NGF also exerts control over the degree of connectivity between the spinal cord and sympathetic ganglia through retrograde control of synapse assembly.

SUMMARY Genome-wide screens were performed to identify transmembrane proteins that mediate axonal growth, guidance and target field innervation of somatosensory neurons. One gene, Linx (alias Islr2), encoding a leucine-rich repeat and immunoglobulin (LIG) family protein, is expressed in a subset of developing sensory and motor neurons. Domain and genomic structures of Linx and other LIG family members suggest that they are evolutionarily related to Trk receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Several LIGs, including Linx are expressed in subsets of somatosensory and motor neurons and select members interact with TrkA and Ret RTKs. Moreover, axonal projection defects in mice harboring a null mutation in Linx resemble those in mice lacking Ngf, TrkA and Ret. In addition, Linx modulates NGF–TrkA- and GDNF–GFRα1/Ret-mediated axonal extension in cultured sensory and motor neurons, respectively. These findings show that LIGs physically interact with RTKs and modulate their activities to control axonal extension, guidance and branching.

Recent studies suggest that the inducible isoform of cyclooxygenase, COX-2, promotes motor neuron loss in rodent models of ALS. We investigated the effects of PGE2, a principal downstream prostaglandin product of COX-2 activity, on motor neuron survival in an organotypic culture model of ALS. We find that PGE2 paradoxically protects motor neurons at physiological concentrations in this model. PGE2 exerts its downstream effects by signaling through a class of four distinct G-protein-coupled E-prostanoid receptors (EP1-EP4) that have divergent effects on cAMP. EP2 and EP3 are dominantly expressed in ventral spinal cord in neurons and astrocytes, and activation of these receptor subtypes individually or in combination also rescued motor neurons. The EP2 receptor is positively coupled to cAMP, and its neuroprotection was mimicked by application of forskolin and blocked by inhibition of PKA, suggesting that its protective effect is mediated by downstream effects of cAMP. Conversely, the EP3 receptor is negatively coupled to cAMP, and its neuroprotective effect was blocked by pertussis toxin, suggesting that its protective effect is dependent on Gi-coupled heterotrimeric signaling. Taken together, these data demonstrate an unexpected neuroprotective effect mediated by PGE2, in which activation of its EP2 and EP3 receptors protected motor neurons from chronic glutamate toxicity.

In contrast to observations in individuals not treated with CART, we found no relationship between CSF markers and neurological status in this CART-using cohort with advanced HIV/AIDS. This was not explicable by demographic differences or plasma virological control. CART may substantially attenuate the degree of central nervous system HIV infection and immune activation, and in CART users, CSF HIV RNA and immune activation markers may fail to discriminate milder degrees of HIV-D and MCMD.

Several studies have demonstrated that matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are cytotoxic. The responsible mechanisms, however, are not well understood. MMPs may promote cytotoxicity through their ability to disrupt or degrade matrix proteins that support cell survival, and MMPs may also cleave substrates to generate molecules that stimulate cell death. In addition, MMPs may themselves act on cell surface receptors that affect cell survival. Among such receptors is the ␣ 2 ␤ 1 integrin, a complex that has previously been linked to leukocyte death. In the present study we show that human neurons express ␣ 2 ␤ 1 and that pro-MMP-1 interacts with this integrin complex. We also show that stimulation of neuronal cultures with MMP-1 is associated with a rapid reduction in the phosphorylation of Akt, a kinase that can influence caspase activity and cell survival. Moreover, MMP-1-associated dephosphorylation of Akt is inhibited by a blocking antibody to the ␣ 2 integrin, but not by batimastat, an inhibitor of MMP-1 enzymatic activity. Such dephosphorylation is also stimulated by a catalytic mutant of pro-MMP-1. Additional studies show that MMP-1 causes neuronal death, which is significantly diminished by both a general caspase inhibitor and anti-␣ 2 but not by batimastat. Together, these results suggest that MMP-1 can stimulate dephosphorylation of Akt and neuronal death through a non-proteolytic mechanism that involves changes in integrin signaling. The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)1 represent a family of endopeptidases named for their ability to degrade extracellular matrix components. These proteinases play a role in tissue remodeling associated with both development and disease (1-7). In the central nervous system MMPs are released by cells including activated astrocytes, microglia, and neurons (8, 9).Previously, we and others have shown that MMPs can be toxic to neurons in vitro (10 -13). Although such toxicity may follow from extracellular matrix destruction (14), it is also reasonable to consider the non-mutually exclusive possibility that other mechanisms are involved. One extracellular matrixindependent mechanism by which MMPs may function involves their ability to cleave non-matrix proteins and thereby generate potential cell surface receptor signaling ligands (15)(16)(17)(18)(19). Another mechanism by which MMPs could affect cell survival might include direct effects on cell surface receptors. For example, MMP-9 binds to CD44 (20), MMP-2 binds to integrin ␣ v ␤ 3 (21), and pro-MMP-1 binds to integrins ␣ 2 ␤ 1 and ␣ 1 ␤ 1 (22). Such binding interactions may facilitate activation of the proenzyme, localize enzyme activity, disrupt cell matrix interactions to promote cell motility, and/or mediate internalization of the protease. Cell surface receptor binding by an MMP may also alter intracellular signaling. It has been shown that the snake venom metalloproteinase jararhagin can signal via ␣ 2 ␤ 1 on fibroblasts in a manner that is insensitive to inhibition of proteinase activity (23). In addition, we have shown t...

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) dementia (HIVD) is associated with an increase in the number of activated monocytes within the central nervous system (CNS), a pathological feature that may be more remarkable in the setting of superimposed substance abuse. Monocytes may transport HIV to the brain, and, moreover, activated and/or infected monocytes have been shown to release a number of potent neurotoxins. Although the mechanisms responsible for the increase in the CNS ingress of monocytes are multiple, blood-brain barrier (BBB)-degrading matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are likely to play an important role. The current study investigates the effects of the HIV-1-encoded protein Tat, and the drug of abuse methamphetamine, on MMP release from brain derived cells. The release of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA), an activator of MMPs, was also investigated. Mixed human neuron/astrocyte cultures were stimulated with Tat or methamphetamine, and supernatants were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and/or gelatin substrate zymography. Results showed that Tat and methamphetamine increased the release of MMP-1 from these cultures. Tat also increased supernatant levels of active MMP-2. In addition, both Tat and methamphetamine stimulated the release of the MMP activator uPA, and in a manner that was sensitive to inhibition with pertussis toxin. Together, these results suggest that in HIVD, Tat and methamphetamine may contribute to CNS inflammation by stimulating increased release and/or activation of matrix-degrading proteinases through mechanisms that include Gi/Go-coupled signaling. These results also suggest a potential mechanism for acceleration of HIVD with methamphetamine use.

Thrombin and related protease-activated receptors 1, 2, 3, and 4 (PAR1–4) play a multifunctional role in many types of cells including endothelial cells. Here, using RT-PCR and immunofluorescence staining, we showed for the first time that PAR1–4 are expressed on primary human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMEC). Digital fluorescence microscopy and fura 2 were used to monitor intracellular Ca2+concentration ([Ca2+]i) changes in response to thrombin and PAR1-activating peptide (PAR1-AP) SFFLRN. Both thrombin and PAR1-AP induced a dose-dependent [Ca2+]irise that was inhibited by pretreatment of HBMEC with the phospholipase C inhibitor U-73122 and the sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin. Thrombin induced transient [Ca2+]iincrease, whereas PAR1-AP exhibited sustained [Ca2+]irise. The PAR1-AP-induced sustained [Ca2+]irise was significantly reduced in the absence of extracellular calcium or in the presence of an inhibitor of store-operated calcium channels, SKF-96365. Restoration of extracellular Ca2+to the cells that were initially activated by PAR1-AP in the absence of extracellular Ca2+resulted in significant [Ca2+]irise; however, this effect was not observed after thrombin stimulation. Pretreatment of the cells with a low thrombin concentration (0.1 nM) prevented [Ca2+]irise in response to high thrombin concentration (10 nM), but pretreatment with PAR1-AP did not prevent subsequent [Ca2+]irise to high PAR1-AP concentration. Additionally, treatment with thrombin decreased transendothelial electrical resistance in HBMEC, whereas PAR1-AP was without significant effect. These findings suggest that, in contrast to thrombin, stimulation of PAR1 by untethered peptide SFFLRN results in stimulation of store-operated Ca2+influx without significantly affecting brain endothelial barrier functions.