This paper investigates the grammaticalization of words into prefixes, via the intermediate stage of separable particles. Particle-verb combinations are analysed as constructional idioms, whereas prefixed verbs are analysed as words.We hypothesize that semantic change triggers the structural change of particles becoming inseparable prefixes. In this way, syntax reflects semantics: the loss of independent semantic content, accompanied by other specific semantic developments, triggers the loss of syntactic independence. Data from Middle and Modern Dutch are discussed to illustrate the validity of the hypothesis and to show that semantic changes indeed precede syntactic changes in the development of particles into prefixes. In the first example, the word ÓÔ 'up' that combines with the verb is also used as an adposition. In that case, the non-verbal element is also referred to as a particle, and the SCV is then referred to as a particle verb. Particle verbs form a productive class of SCVs. In the second example, the word Ò Ö 'down' is also used as an adverb. The fact that SCVs are felt as word-like units is reflected by Dutch orthography, which requires SCVs to be written as one word, without internal spacing, if the two constituents are adjacent. ½º ÁÒØÖÓ Ù Ø ÓÒThe basic reason why SCVs have to be considered as word combinations, and not as prefixed words, is that they are separable: in main clauses, the tensed verbal form appears in second position, whereas the other part is stranded. If we assumed SCVs to be words, we would violate the principle of Lexical Integrity that says that syntactic rules cannot refer to elements of morphological structure (Bresnan-Mchombo 1995;Lapointe 1980).A second phenomenon in which we see the separability of SCVs is Verb Raising. If the verb of an embedded clause is raised to the matrix clause, the SCV can be split, but it can also be treated as a unit. In sentence (2b) the whole SCV ÓÔ ÐÐ Ò is raised to the matrix clause, whereas in sentence (2c) the particle ÓÔ is left behind in the embedded clause. This means that either the verb ÐÐ Ò only, or the whole SCV ÓÔ ÐÐ Ò can be raised to the matrix clause, and shows that there is certainly a level at which the SCV does form a unit for the syntax. The conclusion from sentences like (2b) that SCVs can behave as syntactic units is supported by the behaviour of SCVs in the progressive construction ' Ò Ø + infinitive'; compare:Hans is zijn moeder aan het opbellen Hans is his mother at the up-phone
SUMMARYIsolating computation and communication concerns into separate pure computation and pure coordination modules enhances modularity, understandability and reusability of parallel and/or distributed software. MANIFOLD is a pure coordination language that encourages this separation. We use real, concrete, running MANIFOLD programs to demonstrate the concept of pure coordination modules and the advantage of their reuse in applications of different natures. Performance results for the examples presented in this paper show that the overhead of using MANIFOLD to achieve this enhanced modularity and reusability is in practice small, compared to the more conventional paradigms for the design and programming of parallel and distributed software.
It has been hypothesized that separable complex verbs (SCVs, for example, ópzoeken 'look up') and inseparable complex verbs (ICVs, for example, doorzóeken 'search') form part of the same historical development, SCVs representing a stage intermediate to constructions with syntactic resultatives and ICVs. This paper shows that such a hypothesis is untenable, since many SCV preverbs and ICV preverbs are nonpredicative and thus semantically different from resultatives. Instead, it is claimed that predicative preverbs and nonpredicative preverbs result from two independent historical developments. In addition, the particular semantic and structural properties of SCVs are assumed to suggest a specific SCV structure, to be positioned in between syntactic phrases and morphologically complex words. *
Isolating computation and communication concerns into separate pure computation and pure coordination modules enhances modularity, understandability and reusability of parallel and/or distributed software. MANIFOLD is a pure coordination language that encourages this separation. We use real, concrete, running MANIFOLD programs to demonstrate the concept of pure coordination modules and the advantage of their reuse in applications of different natures. Performance results for the examples presented in this paper show that the overhead of using MANIFOLD to achieve this enhanced modularity and reusability is in practice small, compared to the more conventional paradigms for the design and programming of parallel and distributed software. send primitives used in message passing models of communication strengthen the dependence of individual processes on their environment. This, too, diminishes the reusability and maintainability of processes. 1 It also complicates debugging and
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