Formaldehyde cross-linking of protein complexes combined with immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry analysis is a promising technique for analysing protein-protein interactions, including those of transient nature. Here we used integrin β1 as a model to describe the application of formaldehyde cross-linking in detail, particularly focusing on the optimal parameters for cross-linking, the detection of formaldehyde cross-linked complexes, the utility of antibodies, and the identification of binding partners. Integrin β1 was found in a high molecular weight complex after formaldehyde cross-linking. Eight different anti-integrin β1 antibodies were used for pull-down experiments and no loss in precipitation efficiency after cross-linking was observed. However, two of the antibodies could not precipitate the complex, probably due to hidden epitopes. Formaldehyde cross-linked complexes, precipitated from Jurkat cells or human platelets and analyzed by mass spectrometry, were found to be composed of integrin β1, α4 and α6 or β1, α6, α2, and α5, respectively.
Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is the key effector element in allergic diseases ranging from innocuous hay fever to life-threatening anaphylactic shock. Compared to other Ig classes, IgE serum levels are very low. In its membrane-bound form (mIgE), IgE behaves as a classical antigen receptor on B lymphocytes. Expression of mIgE is essential for subsequent recruitment of IgE-secreting cells. We show that in activated, mIgE-bearing B cells, mRNA for the membrane forms of both murine and human epsilon (e) heavy chains (HC) are poorly expressed compared to mRNA for the secreted forms. In contrast, in mIgG-bearing B cells, mRNA for the membrane forms of murine gamma-1 (c1) and the corresponding human c4 HC are expressed at a much higher level than mRNA for the respective secreted forms. We show that these findings correlate with the presence of deviant polyadenylation signal hexamers in the 3 0 untranslated region (UTR) of both murine and human e genes, causing inefficient processing of primary transcripts and thus poor expression of the proteins and poor recruitment of IgEproducing cells in the immune response. Thus, we have identified a genetic steering mechanism in the regulation of IgE synthesis that represents a further means to restrain potentially dangerous, high serum IgE levels.
Formaldehyde is a key fixation reagent. This review explores its application in combination with qualitative and quantitative mass spectrometry (MS). Formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues form a large reservoir of biologically valuable samples and their investigation by MS has only recently started. Furthermore, formaldehyde can be used to stabilise protein-protein interactions in living cells. Because formaldehyde is able to modify proteins, performing MS analysis on these samples can pose a challenge. Here we discuss the chemistry of formaldehyde cross-linking, describe the problems of and progress in these two applications and their common aspects, and evaluate the potential of these methods for the future.
The discovery of new functions for platelets, particularly in inflammation and immunity, has expanded the role of these anucleate cell fragments beyond their primary hemostatic function. Here, four in-depth human platelet proteomic data sets were generated to explore potential new functions for platelets based on their protein content and this led to the identification of 2559 high confidence proteins. During a more detailed analysis, consistently high expression of the proteasome was discovered, and the composition and function of this complex, whose role in platelets has not been thoroughly investigated, was examined. Data set mining resulted in identification of nearly all members of the 26S proteasome in one or more data sets, except the 5 subunit. However, 5i, a component of the immunoproteasome, was identified. Biochemical analyses confirmed the presence of all catalytically active subunits of the standard 20S proteasome and immunoproteasome in human platelets, including 5, which was predominantly found in its precursor form. It was demonstrated that these components were assembled into the proteasome complex and that standard proteasome as well as immunoproteasome subunits were constitutively active in platelets. These findings suggest potential new roles for platelets in the immune system. For example, the immunoproteasome may be involved in major histocompatibility complex I (MHC I) peptide generation, as the MHC I machinery was also identified in our data sets. Molecular & Cellular
Lysine acylation constitutes a major group of post-translational modifications of proteins, and is found in the proteomes of organisms from all kingdoms of life. Sirtuins are considered the main erasers of these modification marks, and thus contribute to acylation-dependent regulation of enzyme activity, and potentially of protein quality control. We have established a substrate scaffold to enable the analysis of sirtuin activity with a broad range of acyl-lysine modifications, including hydrophobic fatty acids. Characterization of the deacylase activity of the bacterial SrtN, which is encoded by the yhdZ gene of Bacillus subtilis, showed that this enzyme is capable of removing a broad range of acyl groups. These investigations further showed that SrtN and human SIRT1 are efficient lysine-deformylases, thereby providing a first clue as to how this nonenzymatic modification might be removed from affected proteins.
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