Highlights d Mucispirillum schaedleri confers protection against Salmonella colitis in mice d Salmonella and M. schaedleri compete for anaerobic respiration substrates in the gut d M. schaedleri restricts Salmonella infection and inhibits virulence factor expression d Mucispirillum spp. are enriched in human gut mucosal samples

Bacteria and their viruses, bacteriophages (phages), are the most abundant components of the mammalian gut microbiota where these two entities coexist over time. The ecological dynamics underlying the coexistence between these two antagonistic populations in the gut are unknown. We challenged a murine synthetic bacterial community with a set of virulent phages, to study the factors allowing phages-bacteria coexistence in the gut. We found that coexistence was neither dependent on an arms race between bacteria and phages, nor on the ability of phages to extend host range.Instead, our data suggest that some phage-inaccessible sites in the mucosa of the ileum serve as a spatial refuge for bacteria, which from there disseminate in the gut lumen. Luminal phages amplify by infecting luminal bacteria maintaining phage throughout the gut. We conclude that the heterogeneous distribution of microbes in the gut contributes to the long-term coexistence of phages with phage-susceptible bacteria. This observation could explain the persistence in the human gut of intestinal phages, such as the crAssphage, as well as the low efficiency of oral phage therapy against enteric pathogens in animal models and clinical trials.

Antibiotics are used for fighting pathogens, but also target our commensal bacteria as a side effect, disturbing the gut microbiota composition and causing dysbiosis and disease [1][2][3] . Despite this well-known collateral damage, the activity spectrum of the different antibiotic classes on gut bacteria remains poorly characterized. Having monitored the activities of >1,000 marketed drugs on 38 representative species of the healthy human gut microbiome 4 , we here characterize further the 144 antibiotics therein, representing all major classes. We determined >800 Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations (MICs) and extended the antibiotic profiling to 10 additional species to validate these results and link to available data on antibiotic breakpoints for gut microbes. Antibiotic classes exhibited distinct inhibition spectra, including generation-dependent effects by quinolones and phylogeny-independence by βlactams. Macrolides and tetracyclines, two prototypic classes of bacteriostatic protein synthesis inhibitors, inhibited almost all commensals tested. We established that both kill different subsets of prevalent commensal bacteria, and cause cell lysis in specific cases. This species-specific activity challenges the long-standing divide of antibiotics into bactericidal and bacteriostatic, and provides a possible explanation for the strong impact of macrolides on the gut microbiota composition in animals 5-8 and humans [9][10][11] . To mitigate the collateral damage of macrolides and tetracyclines on gut commensals, we exploited the fact that drug combinations have species-specific outcomes in bacteria 12 and sought marketed drugs, which could antagonize the activity of these antibiotics in abundant gut commensal species. By screening >1,000 drugs, we identified several such antidotes capable of protecting gut species from these antibiotics without compromising their activity against relevant pathogens. Altogether, this study broadens our understanding of antibiotic action on gut commensals, uncovers a previously unappreciated and broad bactericidal effect of prototypical bacteriostatic antibiotics on gut bacteria, and opens avenues for preventing the collateral damage caused by antibiotics on human gut commensals..

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The intestinal microbiota is a complex ecosystem implicated in host health and disease. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a multifactorial chronic disorder of the gastrointestinal mucosa. Even though the exact mechanisms are still unknown, the intestinal microbiota is crucial in IBD development. We previously showed that murine norovirus (MNV) induces colitis in the Il10 -deficient ( Il10 −/− ) mouse model of IBD in a microbiota-dependent manner. Thus, in this study we analyzed whether distinct minimal bacterial consortia influence the outcome of MNV-triggered colitis in Il10 −/− mice. Gnotobiotic Il10 −/− mice associated with Oligo-Mouse-Microbiota 12 (OMM 12 ) or Altered Schaedler Flora (ASF) developed little to no inflammatory lesions in the colon and cecum. MNV infection exacerbated colitis severity only in ASF-colonized mice, but not in those associated with OMM 12 . Four weeks after MNV infection, inflammatory lesions in ASF-colonized Il10 −/− mice were characterized by epithelial hyperplasia, infiltration of inflammatory cells, and increased barrier permeability. Co-colonization of ASF-colonized Il10 −/− mice with segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB) abolished MNV-induced colitis, whereas histopathological scores in SFB-OMM 12 -co-colonized mice stayed unchanged. Moreover, SFB only colonized mice associated with ASF. The SFB-mediated protective effects in ASF-colonized mice involved enhanced activation of intestinal barrier defense mechanisms and mucosal immune responses in the chronic and acute phase of MNV infection. SFB colonization strengthened intestinal barrier function by increasing expression of tight junction proteins, antimicrobial peptides and mucus. Furthermore, SFB colonization enhanced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as Tnf α, Il1 β, and Il12a , as well as the expression of the regulatory cytokine Tgf β. Altogether, our results showed that MNV-triggered colitis depends on the microbial context.

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