This paper reports on research that investigates the effectiveness of residential field courses in geography, earth science and environmental science courses at UK institutions of higher education. The research focuses on the effects of fieldwork in the affective domain, which is thought to be linked to the adoption of effective approaches to learning. Approximately 300 students were surveyed immediately before and after a field class, enabling analysis of changes in responses brought about as a result of the field experience. Potential differences were looked for between groups of students determined by gender, age, previous experience of fieldwork and place of residence. The research finds that fieldwork leads to significant effects in the affective domain. In general, student responses were very positive prior to fieldwork and became more positive as a result of the field experience. Some groups exhibited higher levels of anxiety about this learning method prior to the field class; however, such differences were mitigated by the field experience. This study concludes that fieldwork is good.

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Fossil plankton are difficult to identify but have formed a major component of most marine ecosystems throughout geological time. The earliest fossil heterotrophs include planktic forms, and subsequent adaptive innovations quickly appeared in the plankton; these include metazoans and animals with hard parts. Movement into the plankton occurred sporadically throughout geological history and seems to have been independent of any biological or environmental forcing mechanism. Subsequent radiations and extinctions in the cohort of plankton closely reflect events in the benthos. The diversity of zooplankton rose quickly during the early Paleozoic era, but low plankton diversity characterized the late Paleozoic. Significant radiations during early Mesozoic times led to an overall increase in diversity through the Phanerozoic eon. As the composition of the zooplankton has changed, so has their effect on biogeochemical cycles.

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