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Despite different aetiologies, age-related macular degeneration and most inherited retinal disorders culminate in the same final common pathway, the loss of photoreceptors. There are few treatments and none reverse the loss of vision. Photoreceptor replacement by transplantation is proposed as a broad treatment strategy applicable to all degenerations. Recently, we demonstrated restoration of vision following rod-photoreceptor transplantation into a mouse model of stationary night-blindness, raising the critical question of whether photoreceptor replacement is equally effective in different types and stages of degeneration. We present a comprehensive assessment of rod-photoreceptor transplantation across six murine models of inherited photoreceptor degeneration. Transplantation is feasible in all models examined but disease type has a major impact on outcome, as assessed both by the morphology and number of integrated rod-photoreceptors. Integration can increase (Prph2

Despite different aetiologies, most inherited retinal disorders culminate in photoreceptor loss, which induces concomitant changes in the neural retina, one of the most striking being reactive gliosis by Müller cells. It is typically assumed that photoreceptor loss leads to an upregulation of glial fibrilliary acidic protein (Gfap) and other intermediate filament proteins, together with other gliosis-related changes, including loss of integrity of the outer limiting membrane (OLM) and deposition of proteoglycans. However, this is based on a mix of both injury-induced and genetic causes of photoreceptor loss. There are very few longitudinal studies of gliosis in the retina and none comparing these changes across models over time. Here, we present a comprehensive spatiotemporal assessment of features of gliosis in the degenerating murine retina that involves Müller glia. Specifically, we assessed Gfap, vimentin and chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan (CSPG) levels and outer limiting membrane (OLM) integrity over time in four murine models of inherited photoreceptor degeneration that encompass a range of disease severities (Crb1rd8/rd8, Prph2+/Δ307, Rho-/-, Pde6brd1/rd1). These features underwent very different changes, depending upon the disease-causing mutation, and that these changes are not correlated with disease severity. Intermediate filament expression did indeed increase with disease progression in Crb1rd8/rd8 and Prph2+/Δ307, but decreased in the Prph2+/Δ307 and Pde6brd1/rd1 models. CSPG deposition usually, but not always, followed the trends in intermediate filament expression. The OLM adherens junctions underwent significant remodelling in all models, but with differences in the composition of the resulting junctions; in Rho-/- mice, the adherens junctions maintained the typical rod-Müller glia interactions, while in the Pde6brd1/rd1 model they formed predominantly between Müller cells in late stage of degeneration. Together, these results show that gliosis and its associated processes are variable and disease-dependent.

Retinal degeneration is a leading cause of irreversible blindness in the developed world. Differentiation of retinal cells, including photoreceptors, from both mouse and human embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), potentially provide a renewable source of cells for retinal transplantation. Previously, we have shown both the functional integration of transplanted rod photoreceptor precursors, isolated from the postnatal retina, in the adult murine retina, and photoreceptor cell generation by stepwise treatment of ESCs with defined factors. In this study, we assessed the extent to which this protocol recapitulates retinal development and also evaluated differentiation and integration of ESC-derived retinal cells following transplantation using our established procedures. Optimized retinal differentiation via isolation of Rax.GFP retinal progenitors recreated a retinal niche and increased the yield of Crx 1 and Rhodopsin 1 photoreceptors. Rod birth peaked at day 20 of culture and expression of the early photoreceptor markers Crx and Nrl increased until day 28. Nrl levels were low in ESC-derived populations compared with developing retinae. Transplantation of early stage retinal cultures produced large tumors, which were avoided by prolonged retinal differentiation (up to day 28) prior to transplantation. Integrated mature photoreceptors were not observed in the adult retina, even when more than 60% of transplanted ESCderived cells expressed Crx. We conclude that exclusion of proliferative cells from ESC-derived cultures is essential for effective transplantation. Despite showing expression profiles characteristic of immature photoreceptors, the ESC-derived precursors generated using this protocol did not display transplantation competence equivalent to precursors from the postnatal retina. STEM CELLS

Although it has been known for 50 years that adenoviruses (Ads) interact with erythrocytes ex vivo, the molecular and structural basis for this interaction, which has been serendipitously exploited for diagnostic tests, is unknown. In this study, we characterized the interaction between erythrocytes and unrelated Ad serotypes, human 5 (HAd5) and 37 (HAd37), and canine 2 (CAV-2). While these serotypes agglutinate human erythrocytes, they use different receptors, have different tropisms and/or infect different species. Using molecular, biochemical, structural and transgenic animal-based analyses, we found that the primary erythrocyte interaction domain for HAd37 is its sialic acid binding site, while CAV-2 binding depends on at least three factors: electrostatic interactions, sialic acid binding and, unexpectedly, binding to the coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR) on human erythrocytes. We show that the presence of CAR on erythrocytes leads to prolonged in vivo blood half-life and significantly reduced liver infection when a CAR-tropic Ad is injected intravenously. This study provides i) a molecular and structural rationale for Ad–erythrocyte interactions, ii) a basis to improve vector-mediated gene transfer and iii) a mechanism that may explain the biodistribution and pathogenic inconsistencies found between human and animal models.

SummaryHuman vision relies heavily upon cone photoreceptors, and their loss results in permanent visual impairment. Transplantation of healthy photoreceptors can restore visual function in models of inherited blindness, a process previously understood to arise by donor cell integration within the host retina. However, we and others recently demonstrated that donor rod photoreceptors engage in material transfer with host photoreceptors, leading to the host cells acquiring proteins otherwise expressed only by donor cells. We sought to determine whether stem cell- and donor-derived cones undergo integration and/or material transfer. We find that material transfer accounts for a significant proportion of rescued cells following cone transplantation into non-degenerative hosts. Strikingly, however, substantial numbers of cones integrated into the Nrl−/− and Prph2rd2/rd2, but not Nrl−/−;RPE65R91W/R91W, murine models of retinal degeneration. This confirms the occurrence of photoreceptor integration in certain models of retinal degeneration and demonstrates the importance of the host environment in determining transplantation outcome.

To date, there has been a global lack of data regarding the prevalence of conditions falling under the Inherited Retinal Diseases (IRD) classification, the impact on the individuals and families affected, and the cost burden to economies. The absence of an international patient registry, and equitable access to genetic testing, compounds this matter. The resulting incomplete knowledge of the impact of IRDs hinders the development and commissioning of clinical services, provision of treatments, and planning and implementation of clinical trials. Thus, there is a need for stronger evidence to support value for money to regulatory bodies for treatments approved, and progressing through clinical trials. To ensure a strategic approach to future research and service provision, it is necessary to learn more about the IRD landscape. This review highlights two recent cost-of-illness reports on the socioeconomic impact of 10 IRDs in the Republic of Ireland (ROI) and the United Kingdom (UK), which demonstrate the comprehensive impact of IRDs on individuals affected, their families, friends and society. Total costs attributable to IRDs in the ROI were estimated to be £42.6 million in 2019, comprising economic (£28.8 million) and wellbeing costs (£13.8 million). Wellbeing costs were estimated using the World Health Organization (WHO) burden of disease methodology, a non-financial approach, where pain, suffering and premature mortality are measured in terms of disability-adjusted-lifeyears (DALYs). In the UK, wellbeing costs attributable to IRDs were £196.1 million, and economic costs were £327.2 million amounting to £523.3 million total costs in 2019. Accounting for over one-third of total costs, the wellbeing burden of persons affected by IRDs should be emphasized and factored into reimbursement processes for therapies and care pathways. This targeted review presents the most current and relevant data on IRD prevalence in the ROI and the UK, and the impacts (financial and non-financial) of IRDs in terms of diagnosis, wellbeing, employment, formal and informal care, health system costs, deadweight losses and issues surrounding payers and reimbursement. This review demonstrates IRD patients and their families have common issues including, the need for timely equitable access to genetic testing and counselling, equality in accessing employment, and a revision of the assessment process for reimbursement of therapies currently focused on the cost-of-illness to the healthcare system. This review reveals that IRD patients do not frequently engage the healthcare system and as such suggests a cost-of-illness model from a societal perspective may be a better format.

Cystinosis is a lysosomal storage disorder characterized by abnormal accumulation of cystine, which forms crystals at high concentrations. The causative gene CTNS encodes cystinosin, the lysosomal cystine transporter. The eye is one of the first organs affected (corneal lesions and photophobia in the first and visual impairment in the second decade of life). We characterized the ocular anomalies of Ctns Ϫ/Ϫ mice to determine whether they mimic those of patients. The most dramatic cystine accumulation was seen in the iris, ciliary body, and cornea of Ctns Ϫ/Ϫ mice. Consistently, Ctns Ϫ/Ϫ mice had a low intraocular pressure (IOP) and seemed mildly photophobic. Retinal cystine levels were elevated but increased less dramatically with age. Consistently, the retina was intact and electroretinogram (ERG) profiles were normal in mice younger than 19 mo; beyond this age, retinal crystals and lesions appeared. Finally, the lens contained the lowest cystine levels and crystals were not seen. The temporospatial pattern of cystine accumulation in Ctns