Summary• Some green orchids obtain carbon (C) from their mycorrhizal fungi and photosynthesis. This mixotrophy may represent an evolutionary step towards mycoheterotrophic plants fully feeding on fungal C. Here, we report on nonphotosynthetic individuals (albinos) of the green Cephalanthera damasonium that likely represent another evolutionary step.• Albino and green individuals from a French population were compared for morphology and fertility, photosynthetic abilities, fungal partners (using microscopy and molecular tools), and nutrient sources (as characterized by 15 N and 13 C abundances).• Albinos did not differ significantly from green individuals in morphology and fertility, but tended to be smaller. They harboured similar fungi, with Thelephoraceae and Cortinariaceae as mycorrhizal partners and few rhizoctonias. Albinos were nonphotosynthetic, fully mycoheterotrophic. Green individuals carried out photosynthesis at compensation point and received almost 50% of their C from fungi. Orchid fungi also colonized surrounding tree roots, likely to be the ultimate C source.• Transition to mycoheterotrophy may require several simultaneous adaptations; albinos, by lacking some of them, may have reduced ecological success. This may limit the appearance of cheaters in mycorrhizal networks.

ABSTRACT

Monitoring cambial phenology and intra-annual growth dynamics is a useful approach for characterizing the tree growth response to climate change. However, there have been few reports concerning intra-annual wood formation in lowland temperate forests with high time resolution, especially for the comparison between deciduous and coniferous species. The main objective of this study was to determine how the timing, duration and rate of radial growth change between species as related to leaf phenology and the dynamics of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) under the same climatic conditions. We studied two deciduous species, Fagus sylvatica L. and Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl., and an evergreen conifer, Pinus sylvestris L. During the 2009 growing season, we weekly monitored (i) the stem radial increment using dendrometers, (ii) the xylem growth using microcoring and (iii) the leaf phenology from direct observations of the tree crowns. The NSC content was also measured in the eight last rings of the stem cores in April, June and August 2009. The leaf phenology, NSC storage and intraannual growth were clearly different between species, highlighting their contrasting carbon allocation. Beech growth began just after budburst, with a maximal growth rate when the leaves were mature and variations in the NSC content were low. Thus, beech radial growth seemed highly dependent on leaf photosynthesis. For oak, earlywood quickly developed before budburst, which probably led to the starch decrease quantified in the stem from April to June. For pine, growth began before the needles unfolding and the lack of NSC decrease during the growing season suggested that the substrates for radial growth were new assimilates of the needles from the previous year. Only for oak, the pattern determined from the intraannual growth measured using microcoring differed from the pattern determined from dendrometer data. For all species, the ring width was significantly influenced by growth duration and not by growth rate, which differs from previous studies. The observed between-species difference at the intra-annual scale is key information for anticipating suitability of future species in temperate forests.