In this study, the effect of external debt (EXD -current US$) on carbon dioxide emissions (CO 2 -metric tons per capita) is examined by taking the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis as a basis for China. The relationships between CO 2 , gross domestic product per capita (GDP -constant 2010 US$), square of GDP (GD), energy consumption (EM -kg of oil equivalent per capita) and EXD is examined. The autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model and nonlinear ARDL model are used to examine symmetric and asymmetric relationships between the variables respectively for the period of 1978-2014 by including a structural break. China has had a growing EXD to support economic growth especially after the 2008 financial crisis. The results show that EXD and EM significantly and positively affect emissions (EMS). The asymmetric relationship between growth (GW) and EMS is confirmed. The EKC hypothesis is not confirmed for China. The results of the study are in line with the current economic structure of the Chinese economy. The Chinese economy is still over reliant on construction, heavy industries and real estate. Although China's current EXD is 13% of GDP, EXD is growing because private companies and local governments continue to invest heavily in construction and real estate, and have increased borrowing from abroad to cover operational costs since the central government's deleveraging policies have made borrowing from domestic markets more difficult.

In this study, whether economic growth leads to environmental degradation in Australia is analyzed since Australia has been growing consecutively for the last 28 years and is among the countries which are heavily dependent on fossil fuels for energy demands such as oil and coal. In this study, we aim to analyze the EKC hypothesis and the relationships between gross domestic product per capita (GDP in constant 2010 US$), carbon dioxide emissions (CO 2 in metric tons per capita), energy consumption (ENE in kg of oil equivalent per capita) and square of GDP by the ARDL model (Autoregressive Distributed Lag Model) and nonlinear ARDL model (NARDL) to investigate whether the increase in economic growth leads to an increase in emissions. The relationships between economic growth and emissions is important since most of the countries in the world aim for economic growth and certain policy requirements should also be analyzed alongside this relationship to make economic growth and emissions relationship compatible. The main results of this study show that no asymmetric and no symmetric relationships are found between GDP and CO 2. No causal relationship is found from GDP, square of GDP and ENE to CO 2. The EKC hypothesis is not confirmed for Australia. Australia should continue its efforts for decreasing oil consumption, increasing renewable energy generation levels and supporting current market mechanisms which move in favor of renewable energy generation over fossil fuel consumption. Australia can continue its economic growth without concern that reducing CO 2 emissions will negatively affect GDP.

The major goal of this paper is to focus on the linkage between sea transportation, trade liberalization and industrial development in the context of carbon dioxide emission. With this respect, it is attempted to analyze the effects of independent variables on the dependent variable carbon dioxide emission for China by using annual data ranging from 1960 to 2019 with the help of econometric methods such as fully modified least square, dynamic ordinary least square, canonical co-integrating regression, autoregressive distributed lag bound test and generalized moments method. According to the results of fully modified least square, dynamic ordinary least square and canonical co-integrating regression models, there is a significant long-term relationship between sea transportation, trade liberalization, industrial development and carbon dioxide emissions. On the other hand, short term autoregressive distributed lag bound test estimation results reveal that the main determinants of carbon dioxide emission in the short-run are industrial development and sea transportation. The empirical tests reveal important results for policy-makers in China.

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The major goal of this paper is to focus on the existing literature regarding the linkage between maritime, trade liberalization and industrial development in the context of CO2 by using econometrical model. In this context, it is attempted to reveal the effects of independent variables on CO2 (dependent variable) for China from 1980 to 2013 (annual data) by implementing Phillips-Perron (PP), Zivot-Andrews unit root tests, FMOLS, DOLS, CCR, ARDL and GMM methods. According to results of FMOLS, DOLS and CCR models there is a long-term stable relationship between sea transportation, trade liberalization, industrial development and carbon dioxide emissions which is proved empirically. Similarly, Short term ARDL estimation results reveal that the main determinants of CO2 in the short-run are changed in industrial development and maritime transport at 1% significance level. Table 6 summarizes the short-term ARDL results and the findings regarding the error correction model. According to Table 6, error correction model works in order to reach short-run adjustment. In the short term, approximately 78% of shocks in industrial development, maritime transport and trade liberalization are compensated within a period of time and the system is re-established in the long term. China produced half of the 1.2 million electric media used worldwide; the government directs its attention to the rehabilitation and reuse of all these lithium-ion batteries. Large-scale production of biofuels can still be several years away. Crude oil might be very difficult to promote alternative fuels on a national scale unless crude oil prices surge so high as to become unaffordable. Authorities underline: China will become the world’s number one economy. Now renewable energy will be more important, which should be encouraged to use by government on transportation so as to reduce the CO2 emissions. However, China can be leader excess oil use for transport if they want to dominate the economy worldwide.