Earthquakes are dynamic rupture events that initiate, propagate, and terminate on faults within the Earth's crust. Understanding rupture termination is essential for accurately estimating the maximum magnitude earthquake a region might experience. We study termination on sequences of M − 2.5 earthquakes that rupture a 3‐m granite laboratory sample. At this large scale, nucleation, propagation, and termination are either completely or partially confined within the sample–unique observations for experiments on rock. We compare measured termination locations to estimates from a fracture mechanics‐based model to quantify the fracture energy of the laboratory earthquakes, which compare well with estimates from small natural quakes. Our results provide a mathematical framework that links micrometer‐scale friction parameters to meter‐scale earthquake mechanics, shows that a 3‐m slab of granite can behave similar to a 200‐mm sheet of glassy polymer, and demonstrates how small events can prime a fault for larger, damaging ones.

The injection of fluids into the Earth-be it for CO 2 sequestration, enhanced geothermal systems, or oil and gas operations-is known to induce earthquakes (Ellsworth, 2013;Keranen et al., 2013;Raleigh et al., 1976). Minimizing induced seismicity requires an understanding of what causes a fault to begin to slip, the mechanisms driving the transition from aseismic to seismic slip (i.e., initiation of dynamic rupture), and how large the resulting seismic event will grow (i.e., how far dynamic rupture is sustained). These factors help inform the maximum event magnitude and potential for runaway ruptures. This study explores how background stress levels affect the initiation and termination of fluid-induced ruptures using a 3 m rock experiment.Fluid injection field experiments on the decameter scale highlight the important role of induced aseismic slip in the initiation of induced seismicity. Results from show that fluid injection primarily induced aseismic slip. They observed microseismicity as a by-product of aseismic slip rather than directly

Summary Earthquake ruptures are generally considered to be cracks that propagate as fracture or frictional slip on preexisting faults. Crack models have been used to describe the spatial distribution of fault offset and the associated static stress changes along a fault, and have implications for friction evolution and the underlying physics of rupture processes. However, field measurements that could help refine idealized crack models are rare. Here we describe large-scale laboratory earthquake experiments, where all rupture processes were contained within a 3-m long saw-cut granite fault, and we propose an analytical crack model that fits our measurements. Similar to natural earthquakes, laboratory measurements show coseismic slip that gradually tapers near the rupture tips. Measured stress changes show roughly constant stress drop in the center of the ruptured region, a maximum stress increase near the rupture tips, and a smooth transition in between, in a region we describe as the earthquake arrest zone. The proposed model generalizes the widely used elliptical crack model by adding gradually tapered slip at the ends of the rupture. Different from the cohesive zone described by fracture mechanics, we propose that the transition in stress changes and the corresponding linear taper observed in the earthquake arrest zone are the result of rupture termination conditions primarily controlled by the initial stress distribution. It is the heterogeneous initial stress distribution that controls the arrest of laboratory earthquakes, and the features of static stress changes. We also performed dynamic rupture simulations that confirm how arrest conditions can affect slip taper and static stress changes. If applicable to larger natural earthquakes, this distinction between an earthquake arrest zone (that depends on stress conditions) and a cohesive zone (that depends primarily on strength evolution) has important implications for how seismic observations of earthquake fracture energy should be interpreted.

In the quest to determine fault weakening processes that govern earthquake mechanics, it is common to infer the earthquake breakdown energy from seismological measurements. Breakdown energy is observed to scale with slip, which is often attributed to enhanced fault weakening with continued slip or at high slip rates, possibly caused by flash heating and thermal pressurization. However, seismologically inferred breakdown energy varies by more than six orders of magnitude and is frequently found to be negative-valued. This casts doubts about the common interpretation that breakdown energy is a proxy for the fracture energy, a material property which must be positive-valued and is generally observed to be relatively scale independent. Here, we present a dynamic model that demonstrates that breakdown energy scaling can occur despite constant fracture energy and does not require thermal pressurization or other enhanced weakening. Instead, earthquake breakdown energy scaling occurs simply due to scale-invariant stress drop overshoot, which may be affected more directly by the overall rupture mode – crack-like or pulse-like – rather than from a specific slip-weakening relationship.

Earthquakes occur in clusters or sequences that arise from complex triggering mechanisms, but direct measurement of the slow subsurface slip responsible for delayed triggering is rarely possible. We investigate the origins of complexity and its relationship to heterogeneity using an experimental fault with two dominant seismic asperities. The fault is composed of quartz powder, a material common to natural faults, sandwiched between 760 mm long polymer blocks that deform the way 10 meters of rock would behave. We observe periodic repeating earthquakes that transition into aperiodic and complex sequences of fast and slow events. Neighboring earthquakes communicate via migrating slow slip, which resembles creep fronts observed in numerical simulations and on tectonic faults. Utilizing both local stress measurements and numerical simulations, we observe that the speed and strength of creep fronts are highly sensitive to fault stress levels left behind by previous earthquakes, and may serve as on-fault stress meters.

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7Earthquake ruptures are generally considered to be cracks that propagate as fracture or fric-8 tional slip on preexisting faults. Crack models have been used to describe the spatial distribu-9 tion of fault offset and the associated static stress changes along a fault, and have implications 10 for friction evolution and the underlying physics of rupture processes. However, measurements 11 that could help refine idealized crack models are rare. Here we describe large-scale laboratory 12 earthquake experiments, where all rupture processes were contained within a 3-m long saw-13 cut granite fault, and we propose an analytical crack model that fits our measurements. Similar 14 to natural earthquakes, laboratory measurements of displacements show coseismic slip that 15 gradually tapers near the rupture tips. Measured stress changes show a roughly constant stress 16 drop within the ruptured region, and a smooth transition from residual to peak stress near the 17 rupture tips. The proposed crack model generalizes the widely used elliptical crack model by 18 adding a cohesive zone that eliminates the unrealistic stress singularity at the rupture tip.19

Faults are the products of wear processes acting at a range of scales from nanometers to kilometers. Grooves produced by wear are a first-order observable feature of preserved surfaces. However, their interpretation is limited by the complex geological histories of natural faults. Here we explore wear processes on faults by forensically examining a large-scale controlled, laboratory fault which has a maximum offset between the sides of 42 mm and has been reset multiple times for a cumulative slip of approximately 140 mm. We find that on both sides of the fault scratches are formed with lengths that are longer than the maximum offset but less than the cumulative slip. The grooves are explained as a result of interaction with detached gouge rather than as toolmarks produced by an intact protrusion on one side of the fault. The density of grooves increases with normal stress. The experiment has a range of stress of 1-20 MPa and shows a density of 10 grooves/m/MPa in this range. This value is consistent with recent inferences of stress-dependent earthquake fracture energy of 0.2 J/m 2 /MPa. At normal stresses above 20 MPa, the grooves are likely to coalesce into a corrugated surface that more closely resembles mature faults. Groove density therefore appears to be an attractive target for field studies aiming to determine the distribution of normal stress on faults. At low stresses the groove spacing can be measured and contrasted with areas where high stresses produce a corrugated surface. Plain Language Summary The surfaces of faults have grooves that hold information about the fault's mechanics and history. Interpreting these grooves on a complex fault needs to be guided by models of simpler systems; however, such models must also be sufficiently large to capture the multiscale processes carving the fault surface. Here we perform experiments on a 3-m-long artificial fault in a laboratory setting and find that the fault surface develops roughness during slip. First, small particles break off in between the surfaces and excavate grooves on each side. These grooves are created by detached particles rather than protrusions attached to one side or the other. As the normal stress between the fault sides increases, so does the groove density. In a region of the laboratory fault where the normal stress is high, the grooves coalesce to form a corrugated surface that appears more like a natural fault than the other experimentally created surfaces. The work both gives insight into roughness formation and suggests a strategy for future field work that could use roughness to map normal stress variations.