The purpose of this study was to examine the cognitive correlates of 3rd-grade skill in arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems. Third graders (N ϭ 312) were measured on language, nonverbal problem solving, concept formation, processing speed, long-term memory, working memory, phonological decoding, and sight word efficiency as well as on arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems. Teacher ratings of inattentive behavior also were collected. Path analysis indicated that arithmetic was linked to algorithmic computation and to arithmetic word problems and that inattentive behavior independently predicted all 3 aspects of mathematics performance. Other independent predictors of arithmetic were phonological decoding and processing speed. Other independent predictors of arithmetic word problems were nonverbal problem solving, concept formation, sight word efficiency, and language.

First and 2nd graders (N = 28?) receiving Title I services received 1 of 3 kinds of classroom reading programs: direct instruction in letter-sound correspondences practiced in decodable text (direct code); less direct instruction in systematic sound-spelling patterns embedded in connected text (embedded code); and implicit instruction in the alphabetic code while reading connected text (implicit code). Children receiving direct code instruction improved in word reading at a faster rate and had higher word-recognition skills than those receiving implicit code instruction. Effects of instructional group on word recognition were moderated by initial levels of phonological processing and were most apparent in children with poorer initial phonological processing skills. Group differences in reading comprehension paralleled those for word recognition but were less robust. Groups did not differ in spelling achievement or in vocabulary growth. Results show advantages for reading instructional programs that emphasize explicit instruction in the alphabetic principle for at-risk children.

The purpose of this study was to examine the interplay between basic numerical cognition and domain-general abilities (such as working memory) in explaining school mathematics learning. First graders (n=280; 5.77 years) were assessed on 2 types of basic numerical cognition, 8 domain-general abilities, procedural calculations (PCs), and word problems (WPs) in fall and then reassessed on PCs and WPs in spring. Development was indexed via latent change scores, and the interplay between numerical and domain-general abilities was analyzed via multiple regression. Results suggest that the development of different types of formal school mathematics depends on different constellations of numerical versus general cognitive abilities. When controlling for 8 domain-general abilities, both aspects of basic numerical cognition were uniquely predictive of PC and WP development. Yet, for PC development, the additional amount of variance explained by the set of domain-general abilities was not significant, and only counting span was uniquely predictive. By contrast, for WP development, the set of domain-general abilities did provide additional explanatory value, accounting for about the same amount of variance as the basic numerical cognition variables.Inquiries should be sent to Lynn S. Fuchs, 228 Peabody, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37203. Publisher's Disclaimer: The following manuscript is the final accepted manuscript. It has not been subjected to the final copyediting, fact-checking, and proofreading required for formal publication. It is not the definitive, publisher-authenticated version. The American Psychological Association and its Council of Editors disclaim any responsibility or liabilities for errors or omissions of this manuscript version, any version derived from this manuscript by NIH, or other third parties. The published version is available at www.apa.org/pubs/journals/dev NIH Public Access Author ManuscriptDev Psychol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2011 November 1. Published in final edited form as:Dev Psychol. 2010 November ; 46(6): 1731-1746. doi:10.1037/a0020662. NIH-PA Author ManuscriptNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author ManuscriptLanguage, attentive behavior, nonverbal problem solving, and listening span were uniquely predictive.Keywords mathematics development; procedural calculations; word problems; basic numerical cognition; domain-general abilitiesAchieving mathematics competence in its many forms during the elementary school years provides the foundation for learning algebra and other higher forms of mathematics and eventually for success in the labor market and a society that increasingly depends on quantitative skills (National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008). Yet, the cognitive mechanisms that support learning of formal mathematics during elementary school are not well understood: specifically, the relative contributions of children's basic numerical cognition that emerges without formal schooling (e.g., competence in number, counting, and simple arithmetic) as contra...

Children with birth weights under 750 g who survive represent a subgroup of very-low-birth-weight children who are at high risk for neurobehavioral dysfunction and poor school performance.

S This study investigated the effectiveness of combining enhanced classroom instruction and intense supplemental intervention for struggling readers in first grade. Further, it compared two supplemental interventions derived from distinct theoretical orientations, examining them in terms of effects on academic outcomes and whether children's characteristics were differentially related to an instructional intervention. One intervention (Proactive Reading) was aligned with behavioral theory and was derived from the model of Direct Instruction. The other intervention (Responsive Reading) was aligned with a cognitive theory and was derived from a cognitive‐apprenticeship model. These interventions were provided to small groups of first‐grade students at risk for reading difficulties. Students were assessed on various reading and reading‐related measures associated with success in beginning reading. Results indicated that (a) first‐grade students who were at risk for reading failure and who received supplemental instruction in the Responsive or Proactive interventions scored higher on measures of reading and reading‐related skills than students who received only enhanced classroom instruction, (b) enhanced classroom instruction appeared to promote high levels of reading growth for many children at risk for reading failure, (c) the two interventions were essentially equally effective even though they reflected different theoretical perspectives, and (d) children's characteristics did not differentially predict the effectiveness of an intervention. Este estudio investigó la eficacia de combinar una enseñanza intensiva en el aula y una intervención suplementaria exhaustiva para los lectores de primer grado con dificultades. Adicionalmente se compararon dos intervenciones suplementarias derivadas de orientaciones teóricas diferentes y se las examinó en términos de sus efectos sobre los resultados académicos y de sus relaciones con las características de los niños. Una intervención (Lectura Proactiva) pertenecía al marco de la teoría de la conducta y derivaba del modelo de Instrucción Directa. La otra intervención (Lectura Receptiva) estaba relacionada con una teoría cognitiva y derivaba de un modelo cognitivo de aprendizaje. Las intervenciones se realizaron con pequeños grupos de estudiantes en riesgo de fracaso en lectura que asistían a primer grado. Se evaluó a los estudiantes en varias medidas de lectura y habilidades relacionadas que se asocian al éxito en lectura inicial. Los resultados indicaron que: a) los estudiantes de primer grado en riesgo de fracaso en lectura que recibieron intervención suplementaria, tanto Receptiva como Proactiva, tuvieron mejores calificaciones en medidas de lectura y habilidades relacionadas que los estudiantes que sólo recibieron enseñanza intensiva en el aula, b) la enseñanza intensiva en el aula pareció promover altos niveles de desarrollo lector en muchos niños en riesgo de fracaso, c) los dos tipos de intervención fueron igualmente eficaces aunque reflejaran perspectivas teór...

A battery of 7 tasks composed of 105 items thought to measure phonological awareness skills was administered to 945 children in kindergarten through 2nd grade. Results from confirmatory factor analysis at the task level and modified parallel analysis at the item level indicated that performance on these tasks was well represented by a single latent dimension. A 2-parameter logistic item response (IRT) model was also fit to the performance on the 105 items. Information obtained from the IRT model demonstrated that the tasks varied in the information they provided about a child's phonological awareness skills. These results showed that phonological awareness, as measured by these tasks, appears to be well represented as a unidimensional construct, but the tasks best suited to measure phonological awareness vary across development.A considerable amount of research in the acquisition of early reading skills has been focused on the construct of phonological awareness (Stahl & Murray, 1994; Tbrgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 1994;Wagner & Torgesen, 1987). Phonological awareness is often defined as the sensitivity to the sound segments in spoken language. Although there appears to be a consensus on the definition of phonological awareness, the tasks developed to measure it have been quite diverse (McBride-Chang, 1995). These tasks range from rhyme or alliteration detection and sound-to-word matching to the recognition and manipulation of individual phonemes (e.g., blending individual phonemes into words or removing specific phonemes from words to create new words). These individual tasks also vary by linguistic unit (rhyme, onsetrime, or phoneme), position of the linguistic unit within the word (Stahl & Murray, 1994), and whether the target word is a real word or a pseudoword (Wagner, Torgesen, Laughon, Simmons, & Rashotte, 1993). Many of the investigators of phonological awareness have developed their own set of

It is widely accepted that deficits in phonological awareness skills are related to reading difficulties. Recently, another source of reading difficulty has been identified that involves naming speed, and combined impairments in phonological skills and naming speed will produce more severe reading deficits than single deficits in either of these cognitive skills. The purpose of this study was to investigate the consequences of grouping children based on the presence or absence of deficits in these skills. We demonstrate that the greater severity of reading impairment found in children with a double deficit could be due in part to a statistical artifact caused by grouping children based on their performance on two correlated continuous variables. This artifact also makes it difficult to establish the relative impact of deficits in naming speed on reading ability independent of deficits in phonological awareness.

Previous studies of childhood traumatic brain injury (TBI) have emphasized injury-related variables rather than environmental factors as predictors of recovery. We addressed this concern using data collected during a prospective study of children with either TBI or orthopedic injuries (OI) and their families. Participants included 53 children with severe TBI, 56 with moderate TBI, and 80 with OI, all from 6 to 12 years of age at the time of injury. Measures of the preinjury family environment were collected shortly after the injury (baseline). Child cognitive and behavioral outcomes were assessed at baseline and at 6- and 12-month follow-ups. Individual growth curve analyses showed that measures of the preinjury family environment consistently predicted both the level of cognitive and behavioral functioning at 12 months postinjury and the rate of intraindividual change during the 12-month follow-up period, even after taking into account group membership and injury severity. In some cases, the preinjury family environment was a significant moderator of the effect of TBI, buffering its impact in high-functioning families and exacerbating it in low-functioning families. Thus, preinjury environmental factors predict recovery following TBI in children, even after accounting for injury-related variables. (JINS, 1997, 3, 617–630.)