Exposure of human bladder urothelial cells (UROtsa) to 50 nM of the arsenic metabolite, monomethylarsonous acid (MMAIII), for 12 weeks results in irreversible malignant transformation. The ability of continuous, low-level MMAIII exposure to cause an increase in genotoxic potential by inhibiting repair processes necessary to maintain genomic stability is unknown. Following genomic insult within cellular systems poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1), a zinc finger protein, is rapidly activated and recruited to sites of DNA strand breaks. When UROtsa cells are continuously exposed to 50 nM MMAIII, PARP-1 activity does not increase despite the increase in MMAIII-induced DNA single-strand breaks through 12 weeks of exposure. When UROtsa cells are removed from continuous MMAIII exposure (2 weeks), PARP-1 activity increases coinciding with a subsequent decrease in DNA damage levels. Paradoxically, PARP-1 mRNA expression and protein levels are elevated in the presence of continuous MMAIII indicating a possible mechanism to compensate for the inhibition of PARP-1 activity in the presence of MMAIII. The zinc finger domains of PARP-1 contain vicinal sulfhydryl groups which may act as a potential site for MMAIII to bind, displace zinc ion, and render PARP-1 inactive. Mass spectrometry analysis demonstrates the ability of MMAIII to bind a synthetic peptide representing the zinc-finger domain of PARP-1, and displace zinc from the peptide in a dose-dependent manner. In the presence of continuous MMAIII exposure, continuous 4-week zinc supplementation restored PARP-1 activity levels and reduced the genotoxicity associated with MMAIII. Zinc supplementation did not produce an overall increase in PARP-1 protein levels, decrease the levels of MMAIII-induced reactive oxygen species, or alter Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase levels. Overall, these results present two potential interdependent mechanisms in which MMAIII may increase the susceptibility of UROtsa cells to genotoxic insult and/or malignant transformation: elevated levels of MMAIII-induced DNA damage through the production of reactive oxygen species, and the direct MMAIII-induced inhibition of PARP-1.

Acetaminophen (APAP) hepatotoxicity is protected by S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe) treatment 1 hour (h) after APAP in C57/Bl6 mice. This study examined protein carbonylation as well as mitochondrial and cytosolic protein adduction by 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) using mass spectrometry (MS) analysis. Additional studies investigated the leakage of mitochondrial proteins and 4-HNE adduction of these proteins. Male C57/Bl6 mice (n=5/group) were divided into the following groups and treated as indicated: Veh (15 ml/kg water, ip), SAMe (1.25 mmol/kg, ip), APAP (250 mg/kg), and SAMe given 1 h after APAP (S+A). APAP toxicity was confirmed by an increase (p<0.05) in plasma ALT (U/L) and liver weight/10 g body weight relative to the Veh, SAMe and S+A groups 4 h following APAP treatment. SAMe administered 1 h post APAP partially corrected APAP hepatotoxicity as ALT and liver weight/10 g body weights were lower in the S+A group compared the APAP group. APAP induced leakage of the mitochondrial protein, carbamoyl phosphate synthase-1 (CPS-1) into the cytosol and which was reduced in the S+A group. SAMe further reduced the extent of APAP mediated 4-HNE adduction of CPS-1. MS analysis of hepatic and mitochondrial subcellular fractions identified proteins from APAP treated mice. Site specific 4-HNE adducts were identified on mitochondrial proteins sarcosine dehydrogenase and carbamoyl phosphate synthase-1 (CPS-1). In summary, APAP is associated with 4-HNE adduction of proteins as identified by MS analysis and that CPS-1 leakage was greater in APAP treated mice. SAMe reduced the extent of 4-HNE adduction of proteins as well as leakage of CPS-1.

Hydroquinone (HQ) is a metabolite of benzene, and in combination with phenol (PHE), reproduces benzene myelotoxicity. HQ readily oxidizes to 1,4-benzoquinone (1,4-BQ) followed by the reductive addition of glutathione (GSH). Subsequent cycles of oxidation and GSH addition give rise to a variety of mono-, and multi-GSH substituted conjugates. Following administration of PHE/HQ (1.1 mmol/kg/0.9 mmol/kg, ip) to male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, 2-(glutathion-S-yl)HQ [GS-HQ], 2,5-bis-(glutathion-S-yl)HQ [2,5-GS-HQ], 2,6-bis-(glutathion-S-yl)HQ [2,6-GS-HQ], and 2,3,5-tris-(glutathion-S-yl)HQ [2,3,5-GS-HQ] were all identified in bone marrow. 2-(cystein-S-ylglycine)HQ [2-(CysGly)HQ], 2-(cystein-S-yl)HQ [2-(Cys)HQ], and 2-(N-acetylcystein-S-yl)HQ [2-(NACys)HQ] were also found in the bone marrow of PHE/HQ and benzene treated rats and mice, indicating the presence of an active mercapturic acid pathway within bone marrow. Moreover, 2,6-GS-HQ and 2,3,5-GS-HQ were hematotoxic when administered to rats. All of the HQ-GSH conjugates retain the ability to redox cycle and generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), and to arylate target proteins. Recent in vitro and in vivo studies in our laboratory revealed lysine and arginine residues as primary targets of 1,4-BQ, GS-HQ and 2-(NACys)HQ adduction. In contrast 1,4-BQ-adduction of cysteine residues may be a transient interaction, where physiological conditions dictate adduct stability. The generation of ROS and alkylation of proteins may both contribute to benzene-mediated myelotoxicity, and the two processes may be inter-dependent. However, the precise molecular mechanism by which benzene and HQ-GSH conjugates induce hematotoxicity remains to be determined. Within 18 hrs of administration of PHE/HQ to SD rats a significant decrease in blood lymphocyte count was observed. At this early time point, erythrocyte counts and hemoglobin concentrations remained within the normal range. Concomitant with the decrease in lymphocyte count, western blot analysis of bone marrow lysate, using HQ-GSH and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4HNE) specific antibodies, revealed the presence of HQ-GSH- and 4HNE-derived protein adducts. Identification of these adducts is required before the functional significance of such protein modifications can be determined.

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Benzene exposure causes myelotoxicity and leukemia. Phenol and hydroquinone (PHE/HQ; 1.1/0.9 mmol/kg, ip, 19h), metabolites of benzene, significantly decrease lymphocyte counts (58–89%) in rats. HQ readily oxidizes to 1,4‐BQ and conjugates with GSH, and multi‐substituted HQ‐GSHs were detected in bone marrow after PHE/HQ. HQ‐GSHs are more efficient generators of superoxide anion than HQ/1,4‐BQ, and thus retain the ability to arylate proteins and to redox cycle. However, the precise molecular mechanism(s) by which benzene/HQ‐GSH conjugates induce hematotoxicity is unknown. Using anti‐4‐hydroxy‐2‐nonenal (4HNE) specific antibodies on 2D western, and MS/MS peptide sequencing analysis of immunopositive proteins isolated from bone marrow lysate of PHE/HQ treated rats, we revealed the presence of 9 4HNE‐adducted proteins. In particular, protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) and peroxiredoxin 2 (PRDX2) were immunopositive for 4HNE adduction. In models of alcoholic liver disease, both PDI and PRDX6 have reduced activity when adducted by 4HNE. Moreover, a 4HNE adduction site was identified on calreticulin, on a critical cysteine residue involved in its binding to misfolded proteins. Analysis of the structural and functional significance of these protein modifications may provide new insight into the progression of benzene‐induced leukemia. (P30ES006694, RO1GM70890, Sci. Found. of AZ, T32ES007091)