These findings suggest that formal medical student research programs can be optimized by improving the recognition of student effort, promoting student-mentor interaction, and allowing students the option to increase the duration of the research experience. Future studies are needed to determine whether these programs affect research participation and productivity later in participants' careers.

The flipped classroom (FC) approach to teaching has been increasingly employed in undergraduate medical education in recent years. In FC applications, students are first exposed to content via online resources. Subsequent face-to-face class time can then be devoted to student-centered activities that promote active learning. Although the FC has been well received by students in other contexts, the perceptions of medical students regarding this innovation are unclear. This review serves as an early exploration into medical student perceptions of benefits and limitations of the FC. Medical students have generally expressed strong appreciation for the pre-class preparation activities (especially when facilitated by concise, readily accessed online tools) as well as for interactive, engaging small group classroom activities. Some students have expressed concerns with the FC and noted that suboptimal student preparation and insufficient direction and structure during active learning sessions may limit the student-centered benefits. Although students generally perceive that FC approaches can improve their learning and knowledge, this has not been conclusively shown via performances on assessment tools, which may be related to caveats with the assessment tools used. In any case, lifelong self-directed learning skills are perceived by medical students to be enhanced by the FC. In conclusion, medical students have generally expressed strong satisfaction with early applications of the FC to undergraduate medical education, and generally prefer this method to lecture-based instruction.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid‐19) created unparalleled challenges to anatomy education. Gross anatomy education has been particularly impacted given the traditional in‐person format of didactic instruction and/or laboratory component(s). To assess the changes in gross anatomy lecture and laboratory instruction, assessment, and teaching resources utilized as a result of Covid‐19, a survey was distributed to gross anatomy educators through professional associations and listservs. Of the 67 survey responses received for the May–August 2020 academic period, 84% were from United States (US) institutions, while 16% were internationally based. Respondents indicated that in‐person lecture decreased during Covid‐19 (before: 76%, during: 8%, P < 0.001) and use of cadaver materials declined (before: 76 ± 33%, during: 34 ± 43%, P < 0.001). The use of cadaver materials in laboratories decreased during Covid‐19 across academic programs, stand‐alone and integrated anatomy courses, and private and public institutions (P ≤ 0.004). Before Covid‐19, cadaveric materials used in laboratories were greater among professional health programs relative to medical and undergraduate programs (P ≤ 0.03) and among stand‐alone relative to integrated anatomy courses (P ≤ 0.03). Furthermore, computer‐based assessment increased (P < 0.001) and assessment materials changed from cadaveric material to images (P < 0.03) during Covid‐19, even though assessment structure was not different (P > 0.05). The use of digital teaching resources increased during Covid‐19 (P < 0.001), with reports of increased use of in‐house created content, BlueLink, and Complete Anatomy software (P < 0.05). While primarily representing US institutions, this study provided evidence of how anatomy educators adapted their courses, largely through virtual mediums, and modified laboratory protocols during the initial emergence of the Covid‐19 pandemic.

Glucagon is a primary regulator of hepatic glucose production (HGP) in vivo during fasting, exercise and hypoglycaemia. Glucagon also plays a role in limiting hepatic glucose uptake and producing the hyperglycaemic phenotype associated with insulin deficiency and insulin resistance. In response to a physiological rise in glucagon, HGP is rapidly stimulated. This increase in HGP is entirely attributable to an enhancement of glycogenolysis, with little to no acute effect on gluconeogenesis. This dramatic rise in glycogenolysis in response to hyperglucagonemia wanes with time. A component of this waning effect is known to be independent of hyperglycemia, though the molecular basis for this tachyphylaxis is not fully understood. In the overnight fasted state, the presence of basal glucagon secretion is essential in countering the suppressive effects of basal insulin, resulting in the maintenance of appropriate levels of glycogenolysis, fasting HGP and blood glucose. The enhancement of glycogenolysis in response to elevated glucagon is critical in the life-preserving counterregulatory response to hypoglycaemia, as well as a key factor in providing adequate circulating glucose for working muscle during exercise. Finally, glucagon has a key role in promoting the catabolic consequences associated with states of deficient insulin action, which supports the therapeutic potential in developing glucagon receptor antagonists or inhibitors of glucagon secretion.