BackgroundA central aim of physical education is the promotion of basic motor competencies (in German: Motorische Basiskompetenzen; MOBAK), which are prerequisites for children's active participation in sports culture. This article introduces the MOBAK-1 test instrument for 6- to 8-year-old children and determines the construct validity of this test instrument. In addition, the relationship between MOBAK and motor ability (i.e., strength) as well as body mass index (BMI), sex, and age is investigated.MethodsWe analyzed data of 923 first and second graders (422 girls, 501 boys, age = 6.80 ± 0.44 years). The children's basic motor competencies were assessed by the MOBAK-1 test instrument. Besides analyses of frequency, correlation, and variance, 3 confirmatory factor analyses with covariates were performed.ResultsWe found 2 MOBAK factors consisting of 4 items each. The first factor, locomotion, included the items balancing, rolling, jumping, and side stepping; the second factor, object control, included the items throwing, catching, bouncing, and dribbling. The motor ability strength had a significant influence on the factors locomotion (β = 0.60) and object control (β = 0.50). Older pupils achieved better results than younger pupils on object control (β = 0.29). Boys performed better on object control (β = −0.44), whereas girls achieved better results in locomotion (β = 0.07). Pupils with a high BMI achieved lower performance only on the factor locomotion (β = −0.28).ConclusionThe MOBAK-1 test instrument developed for this study meets psychometric validity demands and is suitable to evaluate effects of sports and physical education.
Zusammenfassung. Motorische Basiskompetenzen gewährleisten als erlernbare und funktionale Leistungsdispositionen, dass Kinder qualifiziert an der Sport- und Bewegungskultur teilnehmen können. Ziel des Beitrags ist es, die Entwicklung motorischer Basiskompetenzen über ein Schuljahr abzubilden und potentielle Einflussfaktoren zu untersuchen. Im Rahmen des Projekts „Schulkids in Bewegung“ wurden N = 1031 Kinder der ersten und zweiten Jahrgangsstufe (54 % Jungen, M = 6.83 Jahre, SD = 0.44) in den Kompetenzbereichen Sich-Bewegen und Etwas-Bewegen untersucht. Weiterhin wurde die sportliche Aktivität der Kinder mittels Elternfragebogen erfasst. Die Resultate lassen eine Verbesserung der motorischen Basiskompetenzen im Verlauf eines Schuljahres deutlich erkennen. Die Kompetenzveränderungen fielen für Jungen und Mädchen unterschiedlich aus. Kinder mit hohem BMI zeigten im Vergleich zu Kindern mit geringerem BMI weniger Kompetenzzuwächse. Kinder, welche außerhalb der Schule sportlich aktiv waren, verbesserten ihre motorischen Basiskompetenzen deutlicher, wobei die Art der sportlichen Betätigung bedeutsam war. Insgesamt konnte gezeigt werden, dass endogene und exogene Faktoren in einem engen Zusammenhang mit der motorischen Kompetenzentwicklung zu Beginn der Grundschulzeit stehen.
Basic motor competencies (BMC) are a prerequisite for children to be physically active, participate in sports and thus develop a healthy, active lifestyle. The present study provides a broad screening of BMC and associations with age, sex, body mass index (BMI) and extracurricular physical activity (PA) in 10 different European countries. The different country and regional contexts within Europe will offer a novel view on already established BMC associations. The cross-sectional study was conducted in 11 regions in 10 European countries in 2018. The motor competence areas, object movement (OM) and self-movement (SM), were assessed using the MOBAK-1-2 test instrument in 3758 first and second graders (age: M = 6.86 ± 0.60 years; 50% girls) during Physical Education classes. Children were questioned about their extracurricular PA and age. Their body weight and height were measured in order to calculate BMI. Statistical analyses included variances and correlations. The results showed significant differences in BMC levels between countries (OM: F = 18.74, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.048; SM: F = 73.10, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.163) whereas associations between BMC and correlates were similar. Boys performed significantly better in OM while girls performed better in SM. Age was consistently positively related to OM and SM with older children reaching higher levels of BMC than younger ones. While participation rates for extracurricular PA differed widely, participation in ball sports was correlated with OM and SM. Participation in individual sports showed a significant association with SM. In summary, BMC levels of children seem to depend on where they live and are strongly related to their participation in extracurricular PA. Therefore, education and health policies, in order to enhance motor competence development and PA participation, are recommended. Further research on country-specific Physical Education frameworks and their influence on BMC will provide more insights into structural factors and cultural characteristics of BMC development. On a school level, support tools and educational materials for teachers about BMC may enable children to achieve a basic level of motor competencies through Physical Education, contributing to lifelong participation in PA.
To gain new insights into the formation of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), as a basis for the safe and efficient use of new anode materials, we studied SEI formation on silicon and lithium titanate (LTO) anodes by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and ex situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements. While EIS measurements performed at equidistant voltage intervals provided insights into the SEI formation process, ex situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements supplied data on the chemical composition of the SEI layer. On silicon anodes we observed that resistance decreases in the second cycle which suggests the formation of a stable SEI with SiO 2 , Li 4 SiO 4 , LiF and different carbonates as its main components. On LTO anodes, however, resistance increases by a factor of two indicating incomplete SEI formation. Here LiF and different carbonates were identified as the SEI's main components.
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