Eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) have colonized the entire state of Wisconsin, USA since being successfully reintroduced in the 1970s. Recently, conservation groups have expressed concerns regarding habitat quantity and quality in association with population plateaus and declines in local abundance in some portions of the state. Estimates of survival and productivity are needed to identify the current population status and for drafting effective management plans. We evaluated female eastern wild turkey demographic parameters and the relationship of these parameters to landscape composition between townships that were forest-dominated and those that were primarily open (e.g., cropland, pasture) in southwest and west-central Wisconsin. We radiomarked 129 female eastern wild turkeys during a 2-year field study (2010)(2011)(2012). Seasonal variation and landscape effects on survival were important components in our top models, which accounted for >98% of the relative support. Seasonal survival (AESE) was lowest during spring ( Management of eastern wild turkeys that enhances female and poult survival during the nesting and brood-rearing periods can greatly influence population growth, particularly in forest-dominant landscapes.

The eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) is an economically important upland game bird that has been successfully reintroduced in Wisconsin, USA, and now occurs across the entire state. Although populations have become relatively stable across much of the state, recent concerns have been expressed regarding a plateau in total harvest and declines in local abundance across some areas. Current ecological and demographic parameters are needed to develop biologically justifiable and efficient management strategies. To address these concerns, we used demographic data collected during recent studies on wild turkey survival and productivity in 2 contrasting landscapes with differing proportions of forest and open cover. We then used the properties of deterministic matrix models to identify parameters predicted to have the greatest effect on the finite rate of population change (l) in both landscapes. Our analyses projected population decline for turkeys in predominately forested landscapes (l ¼ 0.782) and population increases in more open landscapes (l ¼ 1.112). Variance-scaled sensitivities suggested that l was most sensitive to variation in nest and poult survival for populations in both landscapes. A life-table response experiment further indicated that higher l in open landscapes was largely attributable to greater rates of yearling and adult female survival during the nesting and brood-rearing period. Simulated variations suggest manipulations in female harvest during the fall either-sex season had less impact on l than did alterations in components of fecundity. Our model results indicated that wild turkey population growth varies across landscapes in southwest and west-central Wisconsin. Management practices that address factors influencing components of fecundity likely have the greatest effect on l in both landscapes. Additionally, populations in forested landscapes may require more conservative harvests to enhance female survival if population stability or increase is to be realized. Ó

Gradual changes in agricultural and landscape management practices have led to growing uncertainty regarding eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) habitat management in contemporary landscapes in the midwestern United States. Nesting and brood‐rearing success during spring often influence turkey population trajectories, and a better understanding of habitat selection during this period would identify potential habitat characteristics that have the greatest influence on turkey population management objectives. We evaluated spring (8 Apr–24 Jul) habitat selection of 89 radio‐marked female wild turkeys across 4 study areas (2 forest‐dominated, and 2 agricultural) in southwest and west‐central Wisconsin, USA, 2010–2011. We investigated habitat selection at 3 hierarchical spatial scales: study areas, within spring areas of use (SAUs), and within 200 m of nest sites. We obtained 3,605 radio‐telemetry relocations (truex¯ = 30.8 ± 0.51 [SE] locations/turkey) and monitored 79 nesting attempts. In both landscapes, female turkeys selected edges, and in forested landscapes females selected for deciduous forests with numerous and dispersed forest openings. Female turkeys generally established SAUs where an even mixture of forest and open‐herbaceous cover was available. Telemetry locations within SAUs indicated female turkeys selected land cover types in proportion to availability (Ŝi = 1), but selection of specific cover types was variable within and among study areas. At the nest site scale, amount of forest‐field edge was greater within 200 m of nest sites (truex¯ = 62.2 m/ha) compared to random locations (truex¯ = 48.3 m/ha). Coarse measures of forest and open‐agricultural cover were useful in identifying habitat selection trends by female turkeys across hierarchical scales. Our results suggest that proportion and configuration of forest and open‐agricultural cover are essential components of female turkey habitat, and forest‐field edge further plays an important role in nest site selection. We suggest conservation efforts focus on ensuring available usable space through maintaining upland deciduous woodlands or providing herbaceous fields in varying degrees of succession when managing for wild turkey populations in mixed forest‐agricultural landscapes. Adaptability of wild turkeys indicates the importance of multi‐scale habitat evaluation prior to implementing habitat management strategies. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

Gobbling call-count surveys have been frequently used as a means for monitoring distributions and population trends of eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris). However, gobbling activity can be highly variable and potentially leads to biased estimates if detection probability is left unaccounted for. Occupancy modeling based on detection-nondetection data offers an effective way of exploring changes in species distribution and provides logistical flexibility with sampling design. Recent advances in occupancy modeling have enabled detection probability and inferences about occupancy dynamics to be estimated from transect sampling designs with spatially replicated survey stations, similar to those of gobbling call-count surveys. We analyzed data collected from 1,815 gobbling call-count surveys in northern Wisconsin, USA, 2014-2017, to compare multiseason correlated-replicate occupancy models to standard multiseason models. Model selection results strongly supported multiseason correlated-replicate models (Σw i = 1.00) over standard multiseason occupancy models. We observed evidence for spatial autocorrelation in local occupancy-probability of local availability was lower when turkeys were unavailable at the previous station (θ = 0.18 ± 0.07 [SE]) compared with when turkeys were available ( ′ θ = 0.79 ± 0.13). Probability of detection was imperfect and varied by time of day (β = −0.503) and wind speed (β = −0.362). Turkeys occurred throughout a variety of habitat conditions, but occupancy was greatest (ψ = 0.990 ± 0.03) along survey routes with 40-60% forest cover. We fit simulated data to standard occupancy models and correlated replicate models and found occupancy and detection estimates were underestimated by as much as 10% with standard occupancy models, but bias was negligible under the correlated replicate modeling approach. Our findings indicate that transect sampling designs that account for spatial correlation among adjacent survey stations can yield improved estimates of detection and occupancy, and such sampling designs could lead to greater ecological interest in factors that influence species occurrence and patterns of habitat use. Gobbling call-count surveys in conjunction with occupancybased modeling may be useful for assessing reintroduced or natural expanding wild turkey populations at the edge of their range. Additionally, we suggest the combination of gobbling surveys and occupancy modeling is useful for evaluating habitat-occurrence relationships across large-scale landscapes or statebased wild turkey management units.

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