Background:In AD, amyloid protein is associated with neurodegeneration, which may involve amyloid effects on astrocytes. Results: In astrocytes, amyloid peptide triggers secretion of proapoptotic exosomes ("apoxosomes") that are associated with ceramide and PAR-4. Conclusion: Activation of nSMase2 and expression of PAR-4 is critical for the secretion of apoxosomes and glial apoptosis. Significance: Apoxosomes may contribute to glial apoptosis, and therefore, neurodegeneration in AD.Amyloid protein is well known to induce neuronal cell death, whereas only little is known about its effect on astrocytes. We found that amyloid peptides activated caspase 3 and induced apoptosis in primary cultured astrocytes, which was prevented by caspase 3 inhibition. Apoptosis was also prevented by shRNA-mediated down-regulation of PAR-4, a protein sensitizing cells to the sphingolipid ceramide. Consistent with a potentially proapoptotic effect of PAR-4 and ceramide, astrocytes surrounding amyloid plaques in brain sections of the 5xFAD mouse (and Alzheimer disease patient brain) showed caspase 3 activation and were apoptotic when co-expressing PAR-4 and ceramide. Apoptosis was not observed in astrocytes with deficient neutral sphingomyelinase 2 (nSMase2), indicating that ceramide generated by nSMase2 is critical for amyloid-induced apoptosis. Antibodies against PAR-4 and ceramide prevented amyloid-induced apoptosis in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that apoptosis was mediated by exogenous PAR-4 and ceramide, potentially associated with secreted lipid vesicles. This was confirmed by the analysis of lipid vesicles from conditioned medium showing that amyloid peptide induced the secretion of PAR-4 and C18 ceramide-enriched exosomes. Exosomes were not secreted by nSMase2-deficient astrocytes, indicating that ceramide generated by nSMase2 is critical for exosome secretion. Consistent with the ceramide composition in amyloid-induced exosomes, exogenously added C18 ceramide restored PAR-4-containing exosome secretion in nSMase2-deficient astrocytes. Moreover, isolated PAR-4/ceramide-enriched exosomes were taken up by astrocytes and induced apoptosis in the absence of amyloid peptide. Taken together, we report a novel mechanism of apoptosis induction by PAR-4/ceramide-enriched exosomes, which may critically contribute to Alzheimer disease.

The increased use of inhaled nicotine via e-cigarettes has unknown risks to lung health. Having previously shown that cigarette smoke (CS) extract disrupts the lung microvasculature barrier function by endothelial cell activation and cytoskeletal rearrangement, we investigated the contribution of nicotine in CS or e-cigarettes (e-Cig) to lung endothelial injury. Primary lung microvascular endothelial cells were exposed to nicotine, e-Cig solution, or condensed e-Cig vapor (1-20 mM nicotine) or to nicotine-free CS extract or e-Cig solutions. Compared with nicotine-containing extract, nicotine free-CS extract (10-20%) caused significantly less endothelial permeability as measured with electric cell-substrate impedance sensing. Nicotine exposures triggered dose-dependent loss of endothelial barrier in cultured cell monolayers and rapidly increased lung inflammation and oxidative stress in mice. The endothelial barrier disruptive effects were associated with increased intracellular ceramides, p38 MAPK activation, and myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation, and was critically mediated by Rho-activated kinase via inhibition of MLC-phosphatase unit MYPT1. Although nicotine at sufficient concentrations to cause endothelial barrier loss did not trigger cell necrosis, it markedly inhibited cell proliferation. Augmentation of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) signaling via S1P1 improved both endothelial cell proliferation and barrier function during nicotine exposures. Nicotine-independent effects of e-Cig solutions were noted, which may be attributable to acrolein, detected along with propylene glycol, glycerol, and nicotine by NMR, mass spectrometry, and gas chromatography, in both e-Cig solutions and vapor. These results suggest that soluble components of e-Cig, including nicotine, cause dose-dependent loss of lung endothelial barrier function, which is associated with oxidative stress and brisk inflammation.

The mitochondrion is involved in energy generation, apoptosis regulation, and calcium homeostasis. Mutations in genes involved in mitochondrial processes often result in a severe phenotype or embryonic lethality, making the study of mitochondrial involvement in aging, neurodegeneration, or reproduction challenging. Using a transgenic insertional mutagenesis strategy, we generated a mouse mutant, Immp2lTg(Tyr)979Ove, with a mutation in the inner mitochondrial membrane peptidase 2-like (Immp2l) gene. The mutation affected the signal peptide sequence processing of mitochondrial proteins cytochrome c1 and glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase 2. The inefficient processing of mitochondrial membrane proteins perturbed mitochondrial function so that mitochondria from mutant mice manifested hyperpolarization, higher than normal superoxide ion generation, and higher levels of ATP. Homozygous Immp2lTg(Tyr)979Ove females were infertile due to defects in folliculogenesis and ovulation, whereas mutant males were severely subfertile due to erectile dysfunction. The data suggest that the high superoxide ion levels lead to a decrease in the bioavailability of nitric oxide and an increase in reactive oxygen species stress, which underlies these reproductive defects. The results provide a novel link between mitochondrial dysfunction and infertility and suggest that superoxide ion targeting agents may prove useful for treating infertility in a subpopulation of infertile patients.

Modifications in the number and complement of glutamatesensing receptors in the post-synaptic membrane are key mechanisms used to adjust synaptic strength. There is abundant evidence that the trafficking of a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors is critical for long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression of synaptic strength [see (Malinow and Malenka 2002;Song and Huganir 2002;Bredt and Nicoll 2003) for reviews], and emerging evidence suggests that trafficking of NMDA receptors is also important for synaptic plasticity (Lan et al. 2001;Roche et al. 2001;Nong et al. 2003;Scott et al. 2004;Lavezzari et al. 2004;Washbourne et al. 2004;Barria and Malinow 2002;Rao and Craig 1997;Quinlan et al. 1999;Watt et al. 2000). Although the identification and characterization of protein components involved in the trafficking of glutamate receptors has been an active and productive area of research, there has been little progress in understanding how changes in membrane lipid components affect the function and trafficking of glutamate receptors. Recent experimental evidence suggests that up to 60% of NMDA receptors are located in lipid rafts (Besshoh et al. Abbreviations used: AMPA, a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid; DAG, diacylglycerol; EPSC, excitatory post-synaptic current; IL, interleukin; ISP-1, myriocin; LTP, long-term potentiation; MS, mass spectrometry; nSMase2, neutral sphingomyelinase 2; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; PKA/C, protein kinase A/C; PLC, phospholipase C; TNF, tumor necrosis factor. AbstractThe insertion and removal of NMDA receptors from the synapse are critical events that modulate synaptic plasticity. While a great deal of progress has been made on understanding the mechanisms that modulate trafficking of NMDA receptors, we do not currently understand the molecular events required for the fusion of receptor containing vesicles with the plasma membrane. Here, we show that sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 3 (also known as neutral sphingomyelinase-2) is critical for tumor necrosis factor (TNF) a-induced trafficking of NMDA receptors and synaptic plasticity. TNFa initiated a rapid increase in ceramide that was associated with increased surface localization of NMDA receptor NR1 subunits and a specific clustering of NR1 phosphorylated on serines 896 and 897 into lipid rafts. Brief applications of TNFa increased the rate and amplitude of NMDA-evoked calcium bursts and enhanced excitatory post-synaptic currents. Pharmacological inhibition or genetic mutation of neutral sphingomyelinase-2 prevented TNFa-induced generation of ceramide, phosphorylation of NR1 subunits, clustering of NR1, enhancement of NMDA-evoked calcium flux and excitatory post-synaptic currents.

The mouse mutation fragilitas ossium (fro) leads to a syndrome of severe osteogenesis and dentinogenesis imperfecta with no detectable collagen defect. Positional cloning of the locus identified a deletion in the gene encoding neutral sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 3 (Smpd3) that led to complete loss of enzymatic activity. Our knowledge of SMPD3 function is consistent with the pathology observed in mutant mice and provides new insight into human pathologies.

Circulating endothelial microparticles (EMPs) are emerging as biomarkers of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in individuals exposed to cigarette smoke (CS), but their mechanism of release and function remain unknown. We assessed biochemical and functional characteristics of EMPs and circulating microparticles (cMPs) released by CS. CS exposure was sufficient to increase microparticle levels in plasma of humans and mice, and in supernatants of primary human lung microvascular endothelial cells. CS-released EMPs contained predominantly exosomes that were significantly enriched in let-7d, miR-191; miR-126; and miR125a, microRNAs that reciprocally decreased intracellular in CS-exposed endothelium. CS-released EMPs and cMPs were ceramide-rich and required the ceramide-synthesis enzyme acid sphingomyelinase (aSMase) for their release, an enzyme which was found to exhibit significantly higher activity in plasma of COPD patients or of CS-exposed mice. The ex vivo or in vivo engulfment of EMPs or cMPs by peripheral blood monocytes-derived macrophages was associated with significant inhibition of efferocytosis. Our results indicate that CS, via aSMase, releases circulating EMPs with distinct microRNA cargo and that EMPs affect the clearance of apoptotic cells by specialized macrophages. These targetable effects may be important in the pathogenesis of diseases linked to endothelial injury and inflammation in smokers.

nSMase2, which cleaves sphingomyelin to generate bioactive lipids, is required for chondrocyte apoptosis and, cell autonomously, for bone mineralization.

The Odd Sex mouse mutation arose in a transgenic line of mice carrying a tyrosinase minigene driven by the dopachrome tautomerase (Dct) promoter region. The minigene integrated 0.98 Mb upstream of Sox9 and was accompanied by a deletion of 134 kb. This mutation causes female to male sex reversal in XX Ods/+ mice, and a characteristic eye phenotype of microphthalmia with cataracts in all mice carrying the transgene. Ods causes sex reversal in the absence of Sry by upregulating Sox9 expression and maintaining a male pattern of Sox9 expression in XX Ods/+ embryonic gonads. This expression, which begins at E11.5, triggers downstream events leading to the formation of a testis. We report here that the 134 kb deletion, in itself, is insufficient to cause sex reversal. We demonstrate that in Ods, the Dct promoter is capable of acting over a distance of 1 Mb to induce inappropriate expression of Sox9 in the retinal pigmented epithelium of the eye, causing the observed microphthalmia. In addition, it induces Sox9 expression in the melanocytes where it causes pigmentation defects. We propose that Ods sex reversal is due to the Dct promoter element interacting with gonad-specific enhancer elements to produce the observed male pattern expression of Sox9 in the embryonic gonads.