Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is a natural lipid-derived molecule that is involved in important physiological functions. Abnormal PGE2 signalling has been associated with pathologies of the nervous system. Previous studies provide evidence for the interaction of PGE2 and canonical Wnt signalling pathways in non-neuronal cells. Since the Wnt pathway is crucial in the development and organization of the brain, the main goal of this study is to determine whether collaboration between these pathways exists in neuronal cell types. We report that PGE2 interacts with canonical Wnt signalling through PKA and PI-3K in neuroectodermal (NE-4C) stem cells. We used time-lapse microscopy to determine that PGE2 increases the final distance from origin, path length travelled, and the average speed of migration in Wnt-activated cells. Furthermore, PGE2 alters distinct cellular phenotypes that are characteristic of Wnt-induced NE-4C cells, which corresponds to the modified splitting behaviour of the cells. We also found that in Wnt-induced cells the level of β-catenin protein was increased and the expression levels of Wnt-target genes (Ctnnb1, Ptgs2, Ccnd1, Mmp9) was significantly upregulated in response to PGE2 treatment. This confirms that PGE2 activated the canonical Wnt signalling pathway. Furthermore, the upregulated genes have been previously associated with ASD. Our findings show, for the first time, evidence for cross-talk between PGE2 and Wnt signalling in neuronal cells, where PKA and PI-3K might act as mediators between the two pathways. Given the importance of PGE2 and Wnt signalling in prenatal development of the nervous system, our study provides insight into how interaction between these two pathways may influence neurodevelopment.

The prevalence of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) has been on the rise over recent years. The presence of diverse subsets of candidate genes in each individual with an ASD and the vast variability of phenotypical differences suggest that the interference of an exogenous environmental component may greatly contribute to the development of ASDs. The lipid mediator prostaglandin E2 (PGE2 ) is released from phospholipids of cell membranes, and is important in brain development and function; PGE2 is involved in differentiation, synaptic plasticity and calcium regulation. The previous review already described extrinsic factors, including deficient dietary supplementation, and exposure to oxidative stress, infections and inflammation that can disrupt signaling of the PGE2 pathway and contribute to ASDs. In this review, the structure and establishment of two key protective barriers for the brain during early development are described: the blood-brain barrier; and the placental barrier. Then, the first comprehensive summary of other environmental factors, such as exposure to chemicals in air pollution, pesticides and consumer products, which can also disturb PGE2 signaling and increase the risk for developing ASDs is provided. Also, how these exogenous agents are capable of crossing the protective barriers of the brain during critical developmental periods when barrier components are still being formed is described. This review underlines the importance of avoiding or limiting exposure to these factors during vulnerable periods in development.

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2 ) is an endogenous lipid molecule that regulates important physiological functions, including calcium signaling, neuronal plasticity, and immune responses. Exogenous factors such as diet, exposure to immunological agents, toxic chemicals, and drugs can influence PGE2 levels in the developing brain and have been associated with autism disorders. This study seeks to determine whether changes in PGE2 level can alter the behavior of undifferentiated and differentiating neuroectodermal (NE-4C) stem cells and whether PGE2 signaling impinges on the Wnt/β-catenin pathways. We show that PGE2 increases proliferation of undifferentiated NE-4C stem cells. PGE2 also promotes the progression of NE-4C stem cell differentiation into neuronal-lineage cells, which is apparent by accelerated appearance of neuronal clusters (neurospheres) and earlier expression of the neuronal marker microtubule-associated protein tau. Furthermore, PGE2 alters the expression of downstream Wnt-regulated genes previously associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. In undifferentiated stem cells, PGE2 downregulates Ptgs2 expression and upregulates Mmp9 and Ccnd1 expression. In differentiating neuronal cells, PGE2 causes upregulation of Wnt3, Tcf4, and Ccnd1. The convergence of the PGE2 and the Wnt pathways is also apparent through increased expression of active β-catenin, a key signaling component of the Wnt/β-catenin pathways. This study provides novel evidence that PGE2 influences progression of neuronal development and influences Wnt target gene expression. We discuss how these findings could have potential implications for neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is an endogenous lipid molecule involved in normal brain development. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) is the main regulator of PGE2 synthesis. Emerging clinical and molecular research provides compelling evidence that abnormal COX2/PGE2 signaling is associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We previously found that COX2 knockout mice had dysregulated expression of many ASD genes belonging to important biological pathways for neurodevelopment. The present study is the first to show the connection between irregular COX2/PGE2 signaling and autism-related behaviors in male and female COX2-deficient knockin, (COX)-2 , mice at young (4-6 weeks) or adult (8-11 weeks) ages. Autism-related behaviors were prominent in male (COX)-2 mice for most behavioral tests. In the open field test, (COX)-2 mice traveled more than controls and adult male (COX)-2 mice spent less time in the center indicating elevated hyperactive and anxiety-linked behaviors. (COX)-2 mice also buried more marbles, with males burying more than females, suggesting increased anxiety and repetitive behaviors. Young male (COX)-2 mice fell more frequently in the inverted screen test revealing motor deficits. The three-chamber sociability test found that adult female (COX)-2 mice spent less time in the novel mouse chamber indicative of social abnormalities. In addition, male (COX)-2 mice showed altered expression of several autism-linked genes: Wnt2, Glo1, Grm5 and Mmp9. Overall, our findings offer new insight into the involvement of disrupted COX2/PGE2 signaling in ASD pathology with age-related differences and greater impact on males. We propose that (COX)-2 mice might serve as a novel model system to study specific types of autism.

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is a lipid signaling molecule important for brain development and function. Various genetic and environmental factors can influence the level of PGE2 and increase the risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). We have previously shown that in neuronal cell lines and mouse brain, PGE2 can interfere with the Wnt canonical pathway, which is essential during early brain development. Higher levels of PGE2 increased Wnt-dependent motility and proliferation of neuroectodermal stem cells, and modified the expression of Wnt genes previously linked to autism disorders. We also recently established a cross-talk between these two pathways in the prenatal mouse brain lacking PGE2 producing enzyme (COX-/-). The current study complements the published data and reveals that PGE2 signaling also converges with the Wnt canonical pathway in the developing mouse brain after maternal exposure to PGE2 at the onset of neurogenesis. We found significant changes in the expression level of Wnt-target genes, Mmp7, Wnt2, and Wnt3a, during prenatal and early postnatal stages. Interestingly, we observed variability in the expression level of these genes between genetically-identical pups within the same pregnancy. Furthermore, we found that all the affected genes have been previously associated with disorders of the central nervous system, including autism. We determined that prenatal exposure to PGE2 affects the Wnt pathway at the level of β-catenin, the major downstream regulator of Wnt-dependent gene transcription. We discuss how these results add new knowledge into the molecular mechanisms by which PGE2 may interfere with neuronal development during critical periods.

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Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is a lipid mediator released from the phospholipid membranes that mediates important physiological functions in the nervous system via activation of four EP receptors (EP1-4). There is growing evidence for the important role of the PGE2/EP4 signaling in the nervous system. Previous studies in our lab show that the expression of the EP4 receptor is significantly higher during the neurogenesis period in the mouse. We also showed that in mouse neuroblastoma cells, the PGE2/EP4 receptor signaling pathway plays a role in regulation of intracellular calcium via a phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-dependent mechanism. Recent research indicates that the functional importance of the EP4 receptor depends on its subcellular localization. PGE2-induced EP4 externalization to the plasma membrane of primary sensory neurons has been shown to play a role in the pain pathway. In the present study, we detected a novel PGE2–dependent subcellular trafficking of the EP4 receptor in neuroectodermal (NE-4C) stem cells and differentiated NE-4C neuronal cells. We show that PGE2 induces EP4 externalization from the Golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane in NE-4C stem cells. We also show that the EP4 receptors translocate to growth cones of differentiating NE-4C neuronal cells and that a higher level of PGE2 enhances its growth cone localization. These results demonstrate that the EP4 receptor relocation to the plasma membrane and growth cones in NE-4C cells is PGE2 dependent. Thus, the functional role of the PGE2/EP4 pathway in the developing nervous system may depend on the subcellular localization of the EP4 receptor.