Alkyl betaines and alkyl dimethylamine oxides have been shown to have pronounced antimicrobial activity when used individually or in combination. Although several studies have been conducted with these compounds in combinations, only equimolar concentrations of the C 12 /C 12 and C 16 /C 14 chain lengths for the betaine and the amine oxide, respectively, have been investigated. This study investigates the antimicrobial activity of a wide range of chain lengths (C 8 to C 18 ) for both the betaine and amine oxide and attempts to correlate their micelle-forming capabilities with their biological activity. A broth microdilution method was used to determine the MICs of these compounds singly and in various molar ratio combinations. Activity against both Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was investigated. Antimicrobial activity was found to increase with increasing chain length for both homologous series up to a point, exhibiting a cutoff effect at chain lengths of approximately 16 for betaine and 14 for amine oxide. Additionally, the C 18 oleyl derivative of both compounds exhibited activity in the same range as the peak alkyl compounds. Critical micelle concentrations were correlated with MICs, inferring that micellar activity may contribute to the cutoff effect in biological activity.As more resistant organisms continue to emerge in society, the identification of additional antimicrobial agents becomes increasingly more important. Compounds such as surfactants are an area to be investigated. Betaines and amine oxides, two types of amphoteric surfactants, have been shown to exhibit antimicrobial activity against a variety of microorganisms (7,16,18,25). Although each of these compounds has shown pronounced activity alone, they have also been used in combination to exhibit a synergistic effect (6).An equimolar mixture of N-alkyl betaine and N-alkyl-N,Ndimethylamine oxide was patented in 1978 in a compound called C31G (17). With chain lengths ranging from C 8 to C 18 and buffered in a citrate buffer, C31G was first shown to have pronounced wound healing and deodorizing effects, as well as antimicrobial sensitivity. Further studies showed C31G has exhibited pronounced activity not only against bacteria, but also against yeasts, fungi, sperm, and enveloped viruses (4,6,14,23). Although several studies have been published about this compound in reference to the extent of antimicrobial activity, little work has been conducted with any other chain lengths besides the following two chain-length combinations: (i) C 12 betaine-C 12 amine oxide and (ii) C 16 betaine-C 14 amine oxide. Additionally, only an equimolar ratio of the two components has been investigated.The structures of these two components are shown in Fig. 1. The variation in length of the long hydrocarbon tail is thought to influence the extent of antimicrobial activity. Like most other surfactants, they are believed to be membrane perturbants, disrupting the cell membrane of the microorganism (26). It is believed that interaction with the surface of th...

No abstract

Objective. To evaluate the competency of second-year pharmacy students to compound capsules from a prescription 12 months after completing a compounding course. Methods. Students who completed the compounding course were given the same prescription they had been given 12 months earlier to compound metoprolol capsules. No warning of the second exercise was given and they were expected to prepare capsules and package and label the finished product. Performance was evaluated in an identical manner for both exercises based on the level of professional competency of a score of 80% or above.Results. Eighty-seven percent fewer students achieved a score of 90% or more on the second exercise and 81% fewer students demonstrated the required competency. Conclusions. Differences in scores on the first and second exercises indicate that pharmacy students' level of competency and retention of knowledge with respect to compounding capsules is not adequately retained after a 12-month hiatus.

Objectives. To develop, pilot test, and evaluate a continuous professional development (CPD) process for first-year pharmacy (P1) students. Design. Students and faculty members were introduced to the important elements of the CPD process via a live training program. Students completed the year-long 4-step CPD cycle by identifying a learning objective, creating a plan, completing the learning activity, evaluating their learning outcome, documenting each step, and meeting with their faculty advisor for feedback and advice. Assessment. Seventy-five first-year students (100%) successfully completed the CPD process during the 2009-2010 academic year. The students spent an average of 7 hours (range 2 to 20 hours) on the CPD process. The majority of faculty members (83%) completing the survey instrument found the process valuable for the students and would like to see the program continued. Conclusion. Integrating a CPD requirement for students in a college or school of pharmacy is feasible and valuable to students' developing life-long learning skills. Effective and frequent training of faculty members and students is a key element in the CPD process.

Objective. To assess the effectiveness of a product-analysis laboratory exercise in teaching students the importance of quality in pharmaceutical compounding. Design. Second-year pharmacy students (N577) participated in a pharmaceutical compounding laboratory exercise and subsequently analyzed their final product using ultraviolet (UV) spectrometry. Assessment. Reflection, survey instruments, and quiz questions were used to measure how well students understood the importance of quality in their compounded products. Product analysis showed that preparations compounded by students had an error range of 0.6% to 140%, with an average error of 23.7%. Students' reflections cited common sources of error, including inaccurate weighing, contamination, and product loss during both the compounding procedure and preparation of the sample for analysis. Ninety percent of students agreed that the exercise improved their understanding of the importance of quality in compounded pharmaceutical products. Most students (85.7%) reported that this exercise inspired them to be more diligent in their preparation of compounded products in their future careers. Conclusion. Integrating an analytical assessment during a pharmaceutical compounding laboratory can enhance students' understanding of quality of compounded pharmaceutical products. It can also provide students a chance to reflect on sources of error to improve their compounding technique in the future.