Social scientists who employ participant observation methods in medical settings are often held accountable for their research methods, specifically in regard to medical research ethics. However, the medical research ethics tradition rubs uneasily against participant observation and the anthropological understanding of the research process. The underlying premise for considering research ethics in the current case is the notion of the vulnerability of psychiatric patients as a participant group. Based on this notion of vulnerability among psychiatric patients, this article discusses the epistemological grounds for vulnerability in anthropological and medical research ethics. The authors draw on their experience with the Regional Committee for Medical Research Ethics in Norway, and the consequences of the guidelines used for participant observation as a research method in a psychiatric hospital. Social science researchers are required to follow medical ethical guidelines, such as informed consent, the principle of voluntariness, and estimation of risks and benefits. Ethnographers have found these guidelines to be obstructive when doing social science research in a psychiatric hospital. The article suggests the need for reformulation of research guidelines for participant observation in medical settings.

ABSTRACT:This article focuses on patients' participation in decision-making in meetings with healthcare professionals in a healthcare system, based on neoliberal regulations and ideas. Drawing on two constructed empirical cases, primarily from the perspective of patients, this article analyses and discusses the clinical practice around decision-making meetings within a Foucauldian perspective. Patients' participation in decision-making can be seen as an offshoot of respect for patient autonomy. A treatment must be chosen, when patients consult physicians. From the perspective of patients, there is a tendency that healthcare professional to supply the patients with the information that the healthcare professionals think necessary for the patient to make his/her own decision. But patients do not always want to be a 'customer' in the healthcare system; they want to be a patient, consulting an expert for help and advice, which creates resistance to the some parts of the decision-making process. Both professionals and patients are subject to the structural frame of the medical field, formed of both neoliberal framework and medical logic. The decision-making competence in relation to the choice of treatment is placed away from the professionals and seen as belonging to the patient. A 'projectification' of the patient occurs, whereby the patient becomes responsible for his choices in treatment and care and the professionals support him with knowledge, preferences, and alternative views, out of which he must make his own choices, and the responsibility for those choices now and in the future. At the same time there is a tendency towards de-professionalisation. In that light, participation of patients in decision-making can be regarded as a tacit governmentality strategy that shape the location of responsibility between individual and society, and independent patients and healthcare professionals, despite 2 the basically desirable, appropriate and necessary idea of involving patients in their own situations from a humanistic perspective.

This article investigates the significance of the smoking-room for psychiatric patients: for their everyday interactions, activities and perceptions of what is meaningful, also for their positioning as agents concerning their own and fellow patients' illnesses and problems. A social constructionist perspective is used as well as concepts anchored in a phenomenology of architecture and local place. This article is a part of ethnographic study of the daily life within a psychiatric ward using participant observation and conversations and interviews with psychiatric inpatient and staff in a psychiatric hospital. Important themes from our analysis were 'smoking-room as patients''panopticon', 'smoking-room as the patients' sanctuary' and 'patient-led treatment'. We discuss these themes within a framework of seeing the smoking-room as an arena for patient and staff resistance. Patients' resistance is analysed as attempts to maintain their civil status identity and feelings of dignity in an otherwise powerless situation.

In the past decade, the Norwegian government has emphasized user participation as an important goal in the care of mentally ill patients, through governmental strategic plans. At the same time, the governmental documents request normalization of psychiatric patients, including the re-socialization of psychiatric patients back into society outside the psychiatric hospital. Milieu therapy is a therapeutic tool to ensure user participation and re-socialization. Based on an ethnographic study in a long-term psychiatric ward in a psychiatric hospital, we identified how staff tried to implement user participation in their milieu-oriented therapy work. We have identified three major tensions and challenges in implementing user participation in milieu-therapeutic work. First, it is difficult to implement individual-based user participation and at the same time take collective house rules and codes of conduct into consideration. Second, user participation proved a difficulty when patients' viewpoints challenged staff judgements on proper conduct and goals for which patients might aim. Third, user participation becomes a challenge when trying to establish relationships based on equality when using milieu therapy in a biomedical hierarchical hospital structure. These tensions and challenges are seen in light of paradoxical political frames and demands on one side, and milieu therapy as a complex tradition anchored in different ideologies on the other.

Milieu therapy is widely used as a therapeutic approach in psychiatric wards in the Nordic countries, but few studies exist that report on what practices a milieu therapy approach implies as seen from an ethnographic perspective. Therefore, there is a need to obtain insight into how milieu therapy unfolds in a psychiatric ward setting. The present ethnographic study aims to explore this in a locked-up psychiatric ward that was tied to a psychodynamic-oriented milieu therapy approach. Metaphors from traditional nuclear family life were widely used. Patients were often understood as harmed children and were taught self-management skills; the staff aimed at providing a caring atmosphere; and the patients seemed to behave, sometimes, in a childlike manner. In a Foucaultian framework, milieu therapy can be seen as a therapeutic normalization technique used to produce self-governing individuals. Milieu therapy "raises" patients in order to transform patients' odd behaviour and nonconforming lifestyles. We see this "raising children" approach as a type of intervention that nicely connects to the national policy of normalization and integration politics towards persons with psychiatric diagnoses.