Excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) are essential for terminating glutamatergic synaptic transmission. They are not only coupled glutamate/Na(+)/H(+)/K(+) transporters but also function as anion-selective channels. EAAT anion channels regulate neuronal excitability, and gain-of-function mutations in these proteins result in ataxia and epilepsy. We have combined molecular dynamics simulations with fluorescence spectroscopy of the prokaryotic homolog GltPh and patch-clamp recordings of mammalian EAATs to determine how these transporters conduct anions. Whereas outward- and inward-facing GltPh conformations are nonconductive, lateral movement of the glutamate transport domain from intermediate transporter conformations results in formation of an anion-selective conduction pathway. Fluorescence quenching of inserted tryptophan residues indicated the entry of anions into this pathway, and mutations of homologous pore-forming residues had analogous effects on GltPh simulations and EAAT2/EAAT4 measurements of single-channel currents and anion/cation selectivities. These findings provide a mechanistic framework of how neurotransmitter transporters can operate as anion-selective and ligand-gated ion channels.

During intraerythrocytic development, Plasmodium falciparum increases the ion permeability of the erythrocyte plasma membrane to an extent that jeopardizes the osmotic stability of the host cell. A previously formulated numeric model has suggested that the parasite prevents premature rupture of the host cell by consuming hemoglobin (Hb) in excess of its own anabolic needs. Here, we have tested the colloid‐osmotic model on the grounds of time‐resolved experimental measurements on cell surface area and volume. We have further verified whether the colloid‐osmotic model can predict time‐dependent volumetric changes when parasites are grown in erythrocytes containing the hemoglobin variants S or C. A good agreement between model‐predicted and empirical data on both infected erythrocyte and intracellular parasite volume was found for parasitized HbAA and HbAC erythrocytes. However, a delayed induction of the new permeation pathways needed to be taken into consideration for the latter case. For parasitized HbAS erythrocyte, volumes diverged from model predictions, and infected erythrocytes showed excessive vesiculation during the replication cycle. We conclude that the colloid‐osmotic model provides a plausible and experimentally supported explanation of the volume expansion and osmotic stability of P. falciparum‐infected erythrocytes. The contribution of vesiculation to the malaria‐protective function of hemoglobin S is discussed.

To avoid clearance by the spleen, red blood cells infected with the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum (iRBCs) adhere to the vascular endothelium through adhesive protrusions called ''knobs'' that the parasite induces on the surface of the host cell. However, the detailed relation between the developing knob structure and the resulting movement in shear flow is not known. Using flow chamber experiments on endothelial monolayers and tracking of the parasite inside the infected host cell, we find that trophozoites (intermediate-stage iRBCs) tend to flip due to their biconcave shape, whereas schizonts (late-stage iRBCs) tend to roll due to their almost spherical shape. We then use adhesive dynamics simulations for spherical cells to predict the effects of knob density and receptor multiplicity per knob on rolling adhesion of schizonts. We find that rolling adhesion requires a homogeneous coverage of the cell surface by knobs and that rolling adhesion becomes more stable and slower for higher knob density. Our experimental data suggest that schizonts are at the border between transient and stable rolling adhesion. They also allow us to establish an estimate for the molecular parameters for schizont adhesion to the vascular endothelium and to predict bond dynamics in the contact region.

Sickle cell trait, a common hereditary blood disorder, protects carriers from severe disease in infections with the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Protection is associated with a reduced capacity of parasitized erythrocytes to cytoadhere to the microvascular endothelium and cause vaso-occlusive events. However, the underpinning cellular and biomechanical processes are only partly understood and the impact on endothelial cell activation is unclear. Here, we show, by combining quantitative flow chamber experiments with multiscale computer simulations of deformable cells in hydrodynamic flow, that parasitized erythrocytes containing the sickle cell haemoglobin displayed altered adhesion dynamics, resulting in restricted contact footprints on the endothelium. Main determinants were cell shape, knob density and membrane bending. As a consequence, the extent of endothelial cell activation was decreased. Our findings provide a quantitative understanding of how the sickle cell trait affects the dynamic cytoadhesion behavior of parasitized erythrocytes and, in turn, endothelial cell activation.

During intraerythrocytic development, the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum alters the mechanical deformability of its host cell. The underpinning biological processes involve gain in parasite mass, changes in the membrane protein compositions, reorganization of the cytoskeletons and its coupling to the plasma membrane, and formation of membrane protrusions, termed knobs. The hemoglobinopathies S and C are known to partially protect carriers from severe malaria, possibly through additional changes in the erythrocyte biomechanics, but a detailed quantification of cell mechanics is still missing. Here, we combined flicker spectroscopy and a mathematical model and demonstrated that knob formation strongly suppresses membrane fluctuations by increasing membrane-cytoskeleton coupling. We found that the confinement increased with hemoglobin S but decreases with hemoglobin C in spite of comparable knob densities and diameters. We further found that the membrane bending modulus strongly depends on the hemoglobinopathetic variant, suggesting increased amounts of irreversibly oxidized hemichromes bound to membranes.

The pathology of Plasmodium falciparum malaria is largely defined by the cytoadhesion of infected erythrocytes to the microvascular endothelial lining. The complexity of the endothelial surface and the large range of interactions available for the infected erythrocyte via parasite-encoded adhesins make analysis of critical contributions during cytoadherence challenging to define. Here, we have explored supported membranes functionalized with two important adhesion receptors, ICAM1 or CD36, as a quantitative biomimetic surface to help understand the processes involved in cytoadherence. Parasitized erythrocytes bound to the receptor-functionalized membranes with high efficiency and selectivity under both static and flow conditions, with infected wild-type erythrocytes displaying a higher binding capacity than do parasitized heterozygous sickle cells. We further show that the binding efficiency decreased with increasing intermolecular receptor distance and that the cell-surface contacts were highly dynamic and increased with rising wall shear stress as the cell underwent a shape transition. Computer simulations using a deformable cell model explained the wall-shear-stress-induced dynamic changes in cell shape and contact area via the specific physical properties of erythrocytes, the density of adhesins presenting knobs, and the lateral movement of receptors in the supported membrane.

Takayasu arteritis (TA) is difficult to diagnose because diagnostic biomarkers have not yet been established. In a previous study, we detected autoantibodies against the human ferritin heavy chain protein (HFC) in the sera of patients with giant cell arteritis (GCA) and/or polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR). The aim of this study is to evaluate the frequency of autoantibodies against HFC in TA. We established seven ELISA assays for the detection of autoantibodies against HFC. We used the full-length recombinant HFC expressed in Escherichia coli or one of six different HFC peptides as autoantigens: 1-18Aa (98.8 % purity), 19-45Aa (98.8 % purity), 52-78Aa (98.3 % purity), 79-104Aa (98.8 % purity), 105-143Aa (98.4 % purity) and 145-183Aa (98.5 % purity). We collected sera from 48 patients with TA, 36 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), 35 patients with arteriosclerosis, 133 patients with febrile diseases, which are known to generate unspecific autoantibodies, and 50 blood donors, which served as controls. The best results were obtained using the ferritin peptides as antigens. By combining the results from the different ELISAs that detect autoantibodies against the HFC peptides 19-44A, 79-104A and 105-144A, we were able to detect ferritin peptide antibodies in 30/48 (62 %) of the TA patients. The frequency was lower than in early GCA and PMR (previous study showed up to 92 %). Positive results were observed in 0/50 (0 %) of the control blood donors, 10/36 (28 %) of the SLE patients, 4/35 (11 %) of the arteriosclerosis patients and 27/133 (20 %) of the fever patients. Considering the lack of biomarkers for TA, autoantibodies against HFC peptides could act as useful markers for TA.

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