Our previous animal studies showed that maternal Porphyromonas gingivalis infection in a subcutaneous chamber is associated with hepatic and uterine translocation, as well as systemic induction of maternal inflammatory responses, both of which were associated with fetal growth restriction (FGR). However, P. gingivalis-challenged dams had fetuses with either FGR (2 standard deviations below mean weight of nonchallenged dams) or normal weight. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine whether maternal infection with P. gingivalis compromises normal fetal development via direct placental invasion and induction of fetus-specific placental immune responses characterized by a proinflammatory Th1-type cytokine profile. P. gingivalis-specific DNA was detected in placentas and fetuses of FGR and normal littermates from P. gingivalisinfected dams. Th1-and Th2-type cytokine mRNA as well as tumor necrosis factor alpha and transforming growth factor ␤2 mRNA were examined in placental tissue by using reverse transcription-PCR to determine Th1/Th2 ratios. For eight litters containing both normal-weight and FGR fetuses, P. gingivalis DNA was detected only in the placentas of FGR fetuses. All fetuses and all amniotic fluid samples from infected and control dams were negative for P. gingivalis DNA. mRNA levels of gamma interferon and interleukin-2 (IL-2) were significantly increased in placentas of FGR fetuses, while expression of IL-10 was significantly decreased in the same group. These data indicate that, in P. gingivalis-challenged dams, within each litter there is placenta-specific translocation of P. gingivalis that results in growth restriction of the targeted fetus, which is associated with a shift in the placental Th1/Th2 cytokine balance.

Poor oral health has a significant effect on the overall health and well-being of older adults, and negatively influences functional ability, diet and nutrition. 1,2 Despite the fact that poor oral health is common among older adults, it is often an overlooked area of healthy aging. 3,4 Poor oral health is increasingly linked to adverse health outcomes, including chronic pain, aspiration pneumonia, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. 5 Poor oral health is especially pronounced among cognitively impaired older adults, including

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A major challenge in foundational science courses in dental curricula is the application of information from the classroom to a clinical setting. To bridge this gap, the aim of this study was to increase students' learning in a foundational pharmacology course through increasing clinical relevance and using formative assessment. Second-year dental students in an introductory pharmacology course were presented material in a traditional basic science lecture format and in brief examples of pharmacy-generated clinical content (Medication Minutes). Short-term retention was assessed with a series of five post-class session, non-graded quizzes, each containing four questions: two knowledge-based (one from basic science material and one Medication Minute) and two application-based (one from basic science material and one Medication Minute). Ten knowledge-based (basic science material) questions and ten application-based (Medication Minutes) questions were included on exams throughout the semester. The primary outcome was to measure long-term retention using performance on these questions on an assessment the following semester. Additionally, the impact of student engagement on examination performance was evaluated based on the number of quizzes each student completed. Students who completed three or more quizzes (n=43, 53%) were designated as "highly engaged," while students who completed less than three quizzes (n=36, 44%) were defined as "less engaged." Two students (3%) were excluded for not completing the long-term assessment or not consenting to the study. On short-term retention measures, the students performed better on the Medication Minute (M=0.76) than basic science (M=0.58) (p<0.001) material; however, on the in-semester examinations, there was no difference in performance. On long-term retention measures, the students performed better on Medication Minute material (M=0.64) than basic science material (M=0.33) (p<0.001); this was true for both highly engaged and less-engaged students. These results suggest that teaching pharmacology in a clinical context yielded better long-term retention than teaching with a non-clinical focus.