In this paper, we review basic and applied findings on punishment and discuss the importance of conducting further research in this area. The characteristics of responding during punishment and numerous factors that interact with basic processes are delineated in conjunction with implications for the treatment of behavior disorders in clinical populations. We conclude that further understanding of punishment processes is needed to develop a highly systematic, effective technology of behavior change, including strategies for improving the efficacy of less intrusive procedures and for successfully fading treatment.

Recent research findings suggest that reinforcing stimuli may be differentially effective as response requirements increase. We extended this line of research by evaluating responding under increasing schedule requirements via progressive-ratio schedules and behavioral economic analyses. The differential effectiveness of preferred stimuli in treating destructive behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement also was examined. Results showed that one of two stimuli was associated with more responding under increasing schedule requirements for the 4 participants. Furthermore, stimuli associated with more responding under increasing schedule requirements generally were more effective in treating destructive behavior than stimuli associated with less responding. These data suggest that progressive-ratio schedules and behavioral economic analyses may be useful for developing a new technology for reinforcer identification. From a clinical perspective, these results suggest that two reinforcers may be similarly effective for low-effort tasks and differentially effective for high-effort tasks.

An approach based on Skinner's (1957) theory of verbal behavior has been developed to understand and teach elementary communication skills to children with autism and developmental disabilities (Sundberg & Partington, 1998). However, few studies have directly examined the characteristics of emerging language in children with developmental disabilities. The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate an assessment for identifying the elementary functions of vocal speech in children. Participants were 4 children with developmental disabilities, aged 6 years to 12 years, who exhibited at least one distinguishable vocal response (word or phrase) frequently in the natural environment. The assessment focused on three verbal operants delineated by Skinner (mand, tact, and intraverbal). One or more functions were identified for at least one vocal response of each child. Results suggested that this assessment would be useful for (a) evaluating Skinner's theory, (b) guiding decisions about language training for individual children, and (c) studying the nature of expressive language development in children with developmental disabilities.

Choice making has proven to be an effective intervention for reducing problem behavior and increasing appropriate behavior. Some researchers have argued that providing opportunities for choice results in an option that the individual prefers. Thus, the efficacy of providing opportunities is related to the reinforcing value of the selection. Other researchers suggest that choice may have reinforcement value independent of, or in addition to, the selection made. This study sought to further examine the mechanism accounting for the influence of choice on behavior. Participants were three individuals with a variety of diagnoses and problem behaviors. Each individual engaged in problematic behavior during task situations. Intervention consisted of providing the individuals a choice of the sequence in which tasks were completed. The intervention resulted in improved behavior for each participant. In addition to supporting the notion that choice making itself may be reinforcing, this study illustrates a practical, effective approach for increasing desirable behavior and decreasing problematic behavior.In recent years, researchers and practitioners have recognized the importance of offering choice-making opportunities to individuals with disabilities (Datillo, 1986). Choice making not only enhances a person's quality of life (Meyer, Eichinger, & Park-Lee, 1987) but can also be used in a therapeutic manner to reduce problematic behavior and occasion appropriate behavior. For example, in a review of choice research conducted between 1975 and 1996, Kern and colleagues (1998) identified 14 research studies that implemented choice as an intervention to decrease undesirable behavior and/or increase desirable behavior.Interventions were implemented in three areas, including vocational/domestic skills (

The pyramidal training model was extended to multiple family members of children with behavior disorders. Three primary caregivers were taught to implement individualized treatments for problem behavior. They were then taught how to use various instructional strategies (e.g., prompting, feedback) to teach 2 other family members to implement the treatment. Results showed that pyramidal training was effective in increasing caregiver implementation of treatments across three families.