Despite the fundamental importance of transcription, a comprehensive analysis of RNA polymerase (RNAP) behavior and its role in the nucleoid organization in vivo is lacking. Here, we used superresolution microscopy to study the localization and dynamics of the transcription machinery and DNA in live bacterial cells, at both the single-molecule and the population level. We used photoactivated single-molecule tracking to discriminate between mobile RNAPs and RNAPs specifically bound to DNA, either on promoters or transcribed genes. Mobile RNAPs can explore the whole nucleoid while searching for promoters, and spend 85% of their search time in nonspecific interactions with DNA. On the other hand, the distribution of specifically bound RNAPs shows that low levels of transcription can occur throughout the nucleoid. Further, clustering analysis and 3D structured illumination microscopy (SIM) show that dense clusters of transcribing RNAPs form almost exclusively at the nucleoid periphery. Treatment with rifampicin shows that active transcription is necessary for maintaining this spatial organization. In faster growth conditions, the fraction of transcribing RNAPs increases, as well as their clustering. Under these conditions, we observed dramatic phase separation between the densest clusters of RNAPs and the densest regions of the nucleoid. These findings show that transcription can cause spatial reorganization of the nucleoid, with movement of gene loci out of the bulk of DNA as levels of transcription increase. This work provides a global view of the organization of RNA polymerase and transcription in living cells.RNA polymerase | transcription | superresolution | single-molecule tracking | protein-DNA interactions

DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair by homologous recombination (HR) has evolved to maintain genetic integrity in all organisms1. Although many reactions that occur during HR are known1-3, it is unclear where, when and how they occur in cells is lacking. Here, by using conventional and super-resolution microscopy we describe the progression of DSB repair in live Escherichia coli. Specifically, we investigate whether HR can occur efficiently between distant sister loci that have segregated to opposite halves of an E. coli cell. We show that a site-specific DSB in one sister can be repaired efficiently using distant sister homology. After RecBCD processing of the DSB, RecA is recruited to the cut locus, where it nucleates into a bundle that contains many more RecA molecules than can associate with the two ssDNA regions that form at the DSB. Mature bundles extend along the cell long axis in the space between the bulk nucleoid and the inner membrane. Bundle formation is followed by pairing in which the two ends of the cut locus relocate at the periphery of the nucleoid and together move rapidly towards the homology of the uncut sister. After sister locus pairing, RecA bundles disassemble and proteins that act late in HR are recruited to give viable recombinants 1-2 generation time equivalents after formation of the initial DSB. Mutated RecA proteins that do not form bundles are defective in sister pairing and in DSB-induced repair. The work reveals an unanticipated role of RecA bundles in channeling the movement of the DNA DSB ends, thereby facilitating the long-range homology search that occurs before the strand invasion and transfer reactions.

In every living organism, cell division requires accurate identification of the division site and placement of the division machinery. In bacteria, this process is traditionally considered to begin with the polymerization of the highly conserved tubulin-like protein FtsZ into a ring that locates precisely at midcell1. Over the last decades, several systems have been reported to regulate the spatiotemporal assembly and placement of the FtsZ-ring2-5. However, the human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae, as many other organisms, is devoid of these canonical systems and the mechanisms of positioning of the division machinery remain unknown4,6. Here we characterize a novel factor that locates at the division site before FtsZ and guides septum positioning in the pneumococcus. MapZ (Midcell Anchored Protein Z) forms ring structures at the cell equator and moves apart as the cell elongates, therefore behaving as a permanent beacon of division sites. MapZ then positions the FtsZ-ring through direct protein-protein interactions. MapZ-mediated control differs from previously described systems mostly based on negative regulation of FtsZ assembly. Further, MapZ is an endogenous target of the ser/thr-kinase StkP, which was recently shown to play a central role in cytokinesis and morphogenesis of the pneumococcus7-9. We show that both phosphorylated and non-phosphorylated forms of MapZ are required for proper Z-ring formation and dynamics. Altogether, this work uncovers a new mechanism for bacterial cell division that is regulated by phosphorylation and illustrates that nature has evolved a diversity of cell division mechanisms adapted to the different bacterial clades.