The mechanisms controlling the transition from neurogenesis to gliogenesis in the vertebrate CNS are incompletely understood. We identified a family of transcription factors, called NFI genes, which are induced throughout the spinal cord ventricular zone (VZ) concomitantly with the induction of GLAST, an early marker of gliogenesis. NFIA is both necessary and sufficient for GLAST induction in the VZ. Unexpectedly, NFIA is also essential for the continued inhibition of neurogenesis in VZ progenitors. This function is mediated by the requirement of NFIA for the expression of HES5, a Notch effector. However, Notch effectors are unable to promote glial-fate specification in the absence of NFIA. Thus, NFIA links the abrogation of neurogenesis to a generic program of gliogenesis, in both astrocyte and oligodendrocyte VZ progenitors. At later stages, NFIA promotes migration and differentiation of astrocyte precursors, a function that is antagonized in oligodendrocyte precursors by Olig2.

Astrocytes constitute the most abundant cell type in the central nervous system (CNS) and play diverse functional roles, but the ontogenetic origins of this phenotypic diversity are poorly understood. We have investigated whether positional identity, a fundamental organizing principle governing the generation of neuronal subtype diversity, is also relevant to astrocyte diversification. We identified three positionally distinct subtypes of white-matter astrocytes (WMA) in the spinal cord, which can be distinguished by the combinatorial expression of Reelin and Slit1. These astrocyte subtypes derive from progenitor domains expressing the homeodomain transcription factors Pax6 and Nkx6.1, respectively. Loss- and gain-of-function experiments indicate that the positional identity of these astrocyte subtypes is controlled by Pax6 and Nkx6.1 in a combinatorial manner. Thus, positional identity is an organizing principle underlying astrocyte, as well as neuronal, subtype diversification and is controlled by a homeodomain transcriptional code whose elements are reutilized following the specification of neuronal identity earlier in development.

Hematoxylin-eosin staining of surgical specimens is a reliable and available method for the detection of bacterial biofilm in chronic infectious disease.

SphK1 is upregulated in HNSCC, and inhibition of SphK1 sensitizes HNSCC to radiation-induced cytotoxicity.