Mothers' and preschoolers' emotion talk was examined for age- (2, 3, and 4 years) and gender-related patterns in the use of labels and explanations. Although labels directly refer to emotions, explanations link emotion words to causal information. Children used emotion words mainly in labels. Boys' emotion talk showed an age increase; in contrast, the youngest group of girls talked about emotion much more frequently than did same-age boys, and this high frequency remained relatively stable across age. Mothers used more explanations than labels in emotion talk to boys but used similar amounts with girls. Further, their use of labels and explanations related to individual differences in the extent to which children talked about emotion. These findings are discussed in terms of language socialization--in particular, processes related to the socialization of emotion language and gender.

This study investigated emotion conversations in 48 Mexican-descent families, focusing on their use of emotion labels and explanations during a videotaped storytelling task. Emotion conversations were examined for patterns related to mothers’ intracultural group (Mexican immigrant, Mexican American) and preschool-age children’s gender. Results indicated that Mexican immigrant mothers used more explanations than labels, whereas Mexican American mothers used comparable amounts of both. Children in both groups used equal amounts of labels and explanations. Mothers’ emotion talk did not show gender patterns, but, in the Mexican American group, girls discussed emotion more than boys did. The data reported here contrast with previous studies reporting low frequency of explanations in Mexican-descent mother-child interactions, diverge from prior findings in European American families, and suggest that gender patterns in emotion talk vary both across and within cultural groups. The results on Mexican-descent families are discussed regarding notions of family closeness, respect, and giving children nurturing advice.

We consider research and theory relevant to the notion of informal learning. Beginning with historical and definitional issues, we argue that learning happens not just in schools or in school-aged children. Many theorists have contrasted informal learning with formal learning. Moving beyond this dichotomy, and away from a focus on where learning occurs, we discuss five dimensions of informal learning that are drawn from the literature: (1) non-didactive, (2) highly socially collaborative, (3) embedded in meaningful activity, (4) initiated by learner's interest or choice, and (5) removed from external assessment. We consider these dimensions in the context of four sample domains: learning a first language, learning about the mind and emotions within families and communities, learning about science in family conversations and museum settings, and workplace learning. Finally, we conclude by considering convergences and divergences across the different literatures and suggesting areas for future research. WIREs Cogni Sci 2011 2 646-655 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.143 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

The influence of high school study habits on achievement in high school and during the first semester of college was examined, using data from 159 female and 93 male freshmen. The same study habits that contributed to success in high school are unrelated to academic achievement during the first semester in college. The findings suggest that college freshmen need to acquire new study habits to be academically successful

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