Summary Understanding the topological configurations of chromatin may reveal valuable insights into how the genome and epigenome act in concert to control cell fate during development. Here we generate high-resolution architecture maps across seven genomic loci in embryonic stem cells and neural progenitor cells. We observe a hierarchy of 3-D interactions that undergo marked reorganization at the sub-Mb scale during differentiation. Distinct combinations of CTCF, Mediator, and cohesin show widespread enrichment in looping interactions at different length scales. CTCF/cohesin anchor long-range constitutive interactions that form the topological basis for invariant sub-domains. Conversely, Mediator/cohesin together with pioneer factors bridge shortrange enhancer-promoter interactions within and between larger sub-domains. Knockdown of Smc1 or Med12 in ES cells results in disruption of spatial architecture and down-regulation of genes found in cohesin-mediated interactions. We conclude that cell type-specific chromatin organization occurs at the sub-Mb scale and that architectural proteins shape the genome in hierarchical length scales.

The eukaryotic genome is organized in the three-dimensional nuclear space in a specific manner that is both a cause and a consequence of its function. This organization is in part established by a special class of architectural proteins of which CTCF is the best characterized. Although CTCF has been assigned a variety of often contradictory roles, new results help draw a unifying model to explain the many functions of this protein. CTCF creates boundaries between topologically associating domains in chromosomes and, within these domains, CTCF facilitates interactions between transcription regulatory sequences. Thus, CTCF links the architecture of the genome to its function.

Enhancer function underlies regulatory processes by which cells establish patterns of gene expression. Recent results suggest that enhancers are specified by particular chromatin marks in pluripotent cells, which may be modified later in development to alter patterns of gene expression and cell differentiation choices. These marks may contribute to the repertoire of epigenetic mechanisms responsible for cellular memory and determine the timing of transcription factor accessibility to the enhancer. Mechanistically, cohesin and non-coding RNAs are emerging as critical players responsible for facilitating enhancer-promoter interactions. Surprisingly, these interactions may be required not only to facilitate initiation of transcription but also to activate the release of RNAPII from promoter-proximal pausing.

SUMMARY Chromosomes of metazoan organisms are partitioned in the interphase nucleus into discrete topologically associating domains (TADs). Borders between TADs are formed in regions containing active genes and clusters of architectural protein binding sites. Transcription of most genes is repressed after temperature stress in Drosophila. Here we show that temperature stress induces relocalization of architectural proteins from TAD borders to inside TADs, and this is accompanied by a dramatic rearrangement in the 3D organization of the nucleus. TAD border strength declines, allowing for an increase in long-distance inter-TAD interactions. Similar but quantitatively weaker effects are observed upon inhibition of transcription or depletion of individual architectural proteins. Heat shock-induced inter-TAD interactions result in increased contacts among enhancers and promoters of silenced genes, which recruit Pc and form Pc bodies in the nucleolus. These results suggest that the TAD organization of metazoan genomes is plastic and can be quickly reconfigured.

BackgroundChromosome conformation capture studies suggest that eukaryotic genomes are organized into structures called topologically associating domains. The borders of these domains are highly enriched for architectural proteins with characterized roles in insulator function. However, a majority of architectural protein binding sites localize within topological domains, suggesting sites associated with domain borders represent a functionally different subclass of these regulatory elements. How topologically associating domains are established and what differentiates border-associated from non-border architectural protein binding sites remain unanswered questions.ResultsBy mapping the genome-wide target sites for several Drosophila architectural proteins, including previously uncharacterized profiles for TFIIIC and SMC-containing condensin complexes, we uncover an extensive pattern of colocalization in which architectural proteins establish dense clusters at the borders of topological domains. Reporter-based enhancer-blocking insulator activity as well as endogenous domain border strength scale with the occupancy level of architectural protein binding sites, suggesting co-binding by architectural proteins underlies the functional potential of these loci. Analyses in mouse and human stem cells suggest that clustering of architectural proteins is a general feature of genome organization, and conserved architectural protein binding sites may underlie the tissue-invariant nature of topologically associating domains observed in mammals.ConclusionsWe identify a spectrum of architectural protein occupancy that scales with the topological structure of chromosomes and the regulatory potential of these elements. Whereas high occupancy architectural protein binding sites associate with robust partitioning of topologically associating domains and robust insulator function, low occupancy sites appear reserved for gene-specific regulation within topological domains.