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BackgroundCholinergic hypothesis has been advanced as an etiology of Alzheimer disease (AD) on the basis of the presynaptic deficit found in the diseased brains, and cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs) are the treatment of choice for these patients. However, only about half of treatment efficacy was found. Because increasing evidence supports an extensive interrelationship between thyroid hormones (THs), cortisol level and the cholinergic system, the aim of the present study was to evaluate thyroid function and cortisol level in patients with mild to moderate AD before and after ChEIs treatment, and to identify possible variations in response. This was a prospective, case–control, follow-up study. Levels of cortisol and THs were evaluated in 21 outpatients with mild to moderate AD and 20 normal controls. All patients were treated with 5 mg/day of donepezil (DPZ) and were reevaluated after 24–26 weeks of treatment. ResultsThe patients had worse cognitive function, higher cortisol level, and lower levels of triiodothyronine (T3) and its free fraction than the controls. There were no significant differences in global cognitive function or cortisol level after treatment, however, significant reductions in T3 and thyroxin (T4) levels were observed. Responders had higher levels of T4 than non-responders, followed by a significant reduction after treatment. ConclusionsThese results suggest that relatively higher levels of T4 may predict a favorable response to DPZ treatment. Further studies are warranted to confirm the relationship between THs and ChEIs therapy in AD and to explore new therapeutic strategies. On the other hand, cortisol levels are more likely to respond to interventions for stress-related neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with AD rather than ChEIs treatment. Further studies are warranted to investigate the association between cortisol level and the severity of stress-related neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with AD.

Aim: Few studies have investigated sarcopenia in patients with cognitive impairment. However, identifying the characteristics and factors associated with sarcopenia in these patients may help to decrease the risk of falls, prevent disabilities, and maintain an independent life, all of which can affect the quality of life of both patient and caregiver. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate associated factors of sarcopenia in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease. Methods: This cross-sectional study enrolled 125 outpatients aged 65 to 89 years (mean age 79.5 AE 7.9 years) from January 2018 to December 2018. In addition to demographic characteristics, cognitive status, depressive mood, activities of daily living, body mass index (BMI), handgrip strength, gait speed, muscle mass, and serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (Vit D), haemoglobin (Hb), albumin and creatinine were assessed. Sarcopenia was defined based on the presence of low muscle mass and either low muscle strength or low physical performance. Results: Overall, 29.6% of the patients had sarcopenia. The patients with sarcopenia were mostly male, significantly older, and had a lower BMI and lower levels of Vit D. The female patients with sarcopenia were more likely to have lower levels of Hb. Multiple logistic regression showed that sarcopenia was associated with BMI in both genders. The level of Vit D was associated with sarcopenia in the female patients, whereas age was associated with sarcopenia in the male patients. Conclusions: A low BMI may be a dementia-related risk factor for sarcopenia. The female patients with sarcopenia were more likely to have lower levels of Hb and Vit D. There may be different risk profiles for sarcopenia in men and women with Alzheimer's disease. Further studies are needed to devise different nutritional support for muscle weakness in patients with cognitive decline by gender.

Objective: Growing evidence suggests an association between alterations in thyroid function and cortisol level and the pathogenesis and progression of Alzheimer disease (AD). The aim of this study was to investigate whether these hormones are related to the cognitive and neuropsychiatric manifestations in the patients with AD.Methods: This was a cross-sectional, case control study. Cortisol level and thyroid status were evaluated in 40 outpatients with mild to moderate AD and 20 normal controls, and cognitive and neuropsychiatric assessments were performed using the Cognitive Ability Screening Instrument (CASI), Neuropsychiatric Inventory, and Geriatric Depression Scale. Results:The patients had worse cognitive function and lower free triiodothyronine (FT3) level than the controls. Those with aberrant motor behavior had a lower FT3 level, and those with dysphoria had a higher cortisol level than those without these symptoms. The patients with a higher level of FT3 also had higher concentration and abstract thinking/judgment scores on the CASI, and those with a higher level of cortisol were associated with a decline in global cognition. Conclusion:Our results indicate a possible association between thyroid hormones and neuropsychiatric manifestations as well as cognitive function in euthyroid patients with AD, and suggest the potential efficacy of adjunctive T3 treatment in these patients. We hypothesize that patients with dysphoria subjectively experience more stress. Further studies are needed to elucidate whether this would increase the risk of depression or exacerbate cognitive function, and to investigate whether a non-pharmacological approach can relieve dysphoria symptoms according to the psychological attachment theory.

Objective: We compared the cognitive functions of Alzheimer disease (AD) patients who were robust, frail or pre-frail and hypothesized that declines in frontal cortex-related neuropsychological function would be associated with frailty. Method: One hundred and sixty outpatients aged 65 years or older with mild AD were enrolled. Cognitive function was assessed using the Cognitive Ability Screening Instrument and further classified into 4 clusters (recent memory, frontal cortex cluster, posterior cortex cluster, and orientation). Other variables included depressive mood, daily activities, body mass index, handgrip strength (HGS), and normal gait speed (NGS). Results: Performance in daily activities, and slower NGS than robust group. Both the frail and pre-frail groups had lower HGS and more depressive symptoms than robust group. Generalized linear with ordinal logistic analysis showed that increment in age, slowing in NGS, and worse frontal cortex cluster function associated with being in a higher level of frailty. The patients with depression symptoms were the odds of being in a higher level of frailty compared to those without depression symptoms. Conclusions: In addition to physical and psychological symptoms, frailty is associated with specific cognitive domains in patients with AD. A multidimensional approach should be used to assess the impact of intervention programs focusing on frail patients with AD.