Currently, nitrogen fertilizers are utilized to meet 48% of the total global food demand. The demand for nitrogen fertilizers is expected to grow as global populations continue to rise. The use of nitrogen fertilizers is associated with many negative environmental impacts and is a key source of greenhouse and harmful gas emissions. In recent years, urease and nitrification inhibitors have emerged as mitigation tools that are presently utilized in agriculture to prevent nitrogen losses and reduce greenhouse and harmful gas emissions that are associated with the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers. Both classes of inhibitor work by different mechanisms and have different physiochemical properties. Consequently, each class must be evaluated on its own merits. Although there are many benefits associated with the use of these inhibitors, little is known about their potential to enter the food chain, an event that may pose challenges to food safety. This phenomenon was highlighted when the nitrification inhibitor dicyandiamide was found as a residual contaminant in milk products in 2013. This comprehensive review aims to discuss the uses of inhibitor technologies in agriculture and their possible impacts on dairy product safety and quality, highlighting areas of concern with regards to the introduction of these inhibitor technologies into the dairy supply chain. Furthermore, this review discusses the benefits and challenges of inhibitor usage with a focus on EU regulations, as well as associated health concerns, chemical behavior, and analytical detection methods for these compounds within milk and environmental matrices.

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ObjectiveUrea is one of the most widely used commercial fertilisers worldwide due to its high N density and cost effectiveness. However, it can be lost in the form of gaseous ammonia and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions which can potentially lead to environmental pollution. Farmers are compelled to apply more urea to account for those losses, thereby increasing their expenditure on fertilization. The objective of this paper is to present a literature review on current knowledge regarding inhibitor technologies such as urease inhibitor; n-(N-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT), and nitrification inhibitor; dicyandiamide (DCD).MethodsA thorough review of all the scientific literature was carried out and a proposed risk assessment framework developed.ResultsThe study showed that the urease inhibitor NBPT significantly reduced NH3 loss from urea. However, concerns about NBPT safety to human health had been raised when the nitrification inhibitor DCD appeared as a residue in milk. This article presents a risk assessment framework for evaluating human exposure to chemicals like NBPT or DCD, following the consumption of foods of animal origin (e.g. milk) from cows grazing on inhibitor-treated pasture.ConclusionThe EU’s target of a 40% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 can be aided by using NBPT as part of an overall suite of solutions. A comprehensive risk assessment is advised for effective evaluation of potential risks from exposure to these inhibitors.

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