The stringent emission rules set by international maritime organisation and European Directives force ships and harbours to constrain their environmental pollution within certain targets and enable them to employ renewable energy sources. To this end, harbour grids are shifting towards renewable energy sources to cope with the growing demand for an onshore power supply and battery-charging stations for modern ships. However, it is necessary to accurately size and locate battery energy storage systems for any operational harbour grid to compensate the fluctuating power supply from renewable energy sources as well as meet the predicted maximum load demand without expanding the power capacities of transmission lines. In this paper, the equivalent circuit battery model of nickel–cobalt–manganese-oxide chemistry has been utilised for the sizing of a lithium-ion battery energy storage system, considering all the parameters affecting its performance. A battery cell model has been developed in the Matlab/Simulink platform, and subsequently an algorithm has been developed for the design of an appropriate size of lithium-ion battery energy storage systems. The developed algorithm has been applied by considering real data of a harbour grid in the Åland Islands, and the simulation results validate that the sizes and locations of battery energy storage systems are accurate enough for the harbour grid in the Åland Islands to meet the predicted maximum load demand of multiple new electric ferry charging stations for the years 2022 and 2030. Moreover, integrating battery energy storage systems with renewables helps to increase the reliability and defer capital cost investments of upgrading the ratings of transmission lines and other electrical equipment in the Åland Islands grid.

Future smart grids will be more dynamic with many variabilities related to generation, inertia, and topology changes. Therefore, more flexibility in form of several active and reactive power related technical services from different distributed energy resources (DER) will be needed for local (distribution network) and whole system (transmission network) needs. However, traditional distribution network operation and control principles are limiting the Photovoltaic (PV) hosting capacity of LV networks and the DER capability to provide system-wide technical services in certain situations. New active and adaptive control principles are needed in order to overcome these limitations. This paper studies and proposes solutions for adaptive settings and management schemes to increase PV hosting capacity and improve provision of frequency support related services by flexible energy resources. The studies show that unwanted interactions between different DER units and their control functions can be avoided with the proposed adaptive control methods. Simultaneously, also better distribution network PV hosting capacity and flexibility services provision from DER units even during very low load situations can be achieved.

During the ongoing evolution of energy systems toward increasingly flexible, resilient, and digitalized distribution systems, many issues need to be developed. In general, a holistic multi-level systemic view is required on the future enabling technologies, control and management methods, operation and planning principles, regulation as well as market and business models. Increasing integration of intermittent renewable generation and electric vehicles, as well as industry electrification during the evolution, requires a huge amount of flexibility services at multiple time scales and from different voltage levels, resources, and sectors. Active use of distribution network-connected flexible energy resources for flexibility services provision through new marketplaces will also be needed. Therefore, increased collaboration between system operators in operation and planning of the future power system will also become essential during the evolution. In addition, use of integrated cyber-secure, resilient, cost-efficient, and advanced communication technologies and solutions will be of key importance. This paper describes a potential three-stage evolution path toward fully flexible, resilient, and digitalized electricity distribution networks. A special focus of this paper is the evolution and development of adaptive control and management methods as well as compatible collaborative market schemes that can enable the improved provision of flexibility services by distribution network-connected flexible energy resources for local (distribution system operator) and system-wide (transmission system operator) needs.

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The performance of lithium ion battery cells is influenced besides the cell chemistry, also by microscopic and macroscopic parameters. In short format cells, the macroscopic variables such as cell geometry, aspect ratio, material thickness, tab configuration etc. do not significantly affect current, voltage, state of charge (SOC) and temperature distribution. However, they cannot be neglected as the cell size increases, especially in large format cells, where the distributions becomes non homogeneous. These inhomogeneities adversely affect the cell’s performance and a long exposure leads to localized aging. This paper presents a spatially resolved modelling technique in Matlab/Simulink to evaluate cell inhomogeneity. It compares current, voltage and SOC distribution of 8 Ah and 75 Ah cells and how the distribution changes from a fresh cell to its end of life (EOL).