Pineal melatonin release exhibits a circadian rhythm with a tight nocturnal pattern. Melatonin synthesis is regulated by the master circadian clock within the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and is also directly inhibited by light. The SCN is necessary for both circadian regulation and light inhibition of melatonin synthesis and thus it has been difficult to isolate these two regulatory limbs to define the output pathways by which the SCN conveys circadian and light phase information to the pineal. A 22-h light-dark (LD) cycle forced desynchrony protocol leads to the stable dissociation of rhythmic clock gene expression within the ventrolateral SCN (vlSCN) and the dorsomedial SCN (dmSCN). In the present study, we have used this protocol to assess the pattern of melatonin release under forced desynchronization of these SCN subregions. In light of our reported patterns of clock gene expression in the forced desynchronized rat, we propose that the vlSCN oscillator entrains to the 22-h LD cycle whereas the dmSCN shows relative coordination to the light-entrained vlSCN, and that this dual-oscillator configuration accounts for the pattern of melatonin release. We present a simple mathematical model in which the relative coordination of a single oscillator within the dmSCN to a single light-entrained oscillator within the vlSCN faithfully portrays the circadian phase, duration and amplitude of melatonin release under forced desynchronization. Our results underscore the importance of the SCNs subregional organization to both photic input processing and rhythmic output control.circadian desynchronization ͉ dual oscillators ͉ suprachiasmatic I n mammals, circadian rhythms are governed by a master pacemaker located in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) (1, 2). The SCN is a heterogeneous nucleus with major subregional differences in neurochemical phenotype, connectivity and patterns of gene expression (3-6). Light information is transmitted directly to the SCN via the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT) (7,8). In rats, RHT input is dense in the ventrolateral SCN (vlSCN), and relatively sparse in the dorsomedial SCN (dmSCN) (3). In this species, segregation of SCN afferents is paralleled by a segregation of efferent projections emerging from each subregion, and some SCN targets receive input from only the vl-or the dmSCN (9). This topographic organization of afferent and efferent projections suggests different roles for these subregions regarding processing of photic information and control of circadian outputs. Indeed, photic stimulation by light pulses applied during the subjective night or by abruptly shifting the light-dark (LD) cycle up-regulates expression of the clock gene Per1 in the vlSCN, inducing a transient desynchronization in gene expression between the two subregions (10-13). These data strongly suggest that the SCNЈs subregional organization is key to the processing of light information. Its role in the control of circadian outputs, however, is more difficult to assess and has been limited t...

The adult rat adrenal cortex is comprised of three concentric steroidogenic zones that are morphologically and functionally distinguishable: the zona glomerulosa, zona intermedia, and the zona fasciculata/reticularis. Expression of the zone-specific steroidogenic enzymes, cytochrome P450 aldosterone synthase (P450aldo), and P450 11beta hydroxylase (P45011beta), produced by the zona glomerulosa and zona fasciculata/reticularis, respectively, can be used to define the adrenal cortical cell phenotype of these two zones. In this study, immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization were used to determine the ontogeny of expression of P450aldo and P45011beta to monitor the pattern of development of the rat adrenal cortex. RIA was used to measure adrenal content of aldosterone and corticosterone, the resulting products of the two enzymatic pathways. Double immunofluorescent staining for both enzymes at gestational day 16 (E16) showed P45011beta protein expressed in cells distributed throughout most of the adrenal intermixed with a separate, but smaller, population of cells expressing P450aldo protein. Whereas expression of P45011beta protein retained a similar pattern of distribution from E16 to adulthood (ignoring distribution of SA-1 positive, presumptive medullary cells), P450aldo protein changed its pattern of distribution by E19, becoming localized in a discontinuous ring of cells adjacent to the capsule. By postnatal day 1, P450aldo protein distribution was similar to that observed in adult glands; P450aldo-positive cells formed a continuous zone underlying the capsule. In situ hybridization showed that the pattern of P45011beta messenger RNA expression paralleled protein expression at all times, whereas P450aldo messenger RNA paralleled protein at E19 and after, but was undetectable before E19. However, adrenal aldosterone and corticosterone, as measured by RIA, were detected by E16, supporting the functional capacity of both phenotypes for all ages studied. These data suggest that the development of the adrenal zona glomerulosa occurs in two distinct phases; initial expression of the glomerulosa phenotype in scattered cells of the inner cortex before E17, followed by a change in distribution to the outer cortex between E17 and E19. It is hypothesized that this change in distribution occurs via cell differentiation, rather than cell migration, and that a possible regulator of these events is the fetal renin-angiotensin system.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is required for the daily rhythm of plasma glucocorticoids; however, the independent contributions from oscillators within the different subregions of the SCN to the glucocorticoid rhythm remain unclear. Here, we use genetically and neurologically intact, forced desynchronized rats to test the hypothesis that the daily rhythm of the glucocorticoid, corticosterone, is regulated by both light responsive and light-dissociated circadian oscillators in the ventrolateral (vl-) and dorsomedial (dm-) SCN, respectively. We show that when the vlSCN and dmSCN are in maximum phase misalignment, the peak of the plasma corticosterone rhythm is shifted and the amplitude reduced; whereas, the peak of the plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) rhythm is also reduced, the phase is dissociated from that of the corticosterone rhythm. These data support previous studies suggesting an ACTH-independent pathway contributes to the corticosterone rhythm. To determine if either SCN subregion independently regulates corticosterone through the sympathetic nervous system, we compared unilateral adrenalectomized, desynchronized rats that had undergone either transection of the thoracic splanchnic nerve or sham transection to the remaining adrenal. Splanchnicectomy reduced and phase advanced the peak of both the corticosterone and ACTH rhythms. These data suggest that both the vlSCN and dmSCN contribute to the corticosterone rhythm by both reducing plasma ACTH and differentially regulating plasma corticosterone through an ACTH- and sympathetic nervous system-independent pathway.

Timing of seasonal reproduction in high latitude vertebrates is generally regulated by photoperiodic cues. Increasing day length in the spring is associated with changes in the brain that are responsible for mediating reproductive activities. A primary example of this is the increased content of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in the preoptic area of the hypothalamus in birds as they enter the spring breeding season. Increased GnRH activity stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary. These gonadotropins induce growth of the gonads and release of sex steroids which act on the brain to mediate reproductive behaviors. By contrast, seasonal breeding in the tropics can occur in the absence of significant changes in photoperiod. To our knowledge, no studies have investigated whether seasonal breeding in free-living tropical vertebrates is associated with seasonal changes in the GnRH system. We studied two populations of rufous-collared sparrows (Zonotrichia capensis) at the equator, separated by only 25 km, but with asynchronous reproductive phenologies associated with local climate and independent of photoperiodic cues. We collected brains and measured GnRH immunoreactivity (GnRH-ir) during each population’s breeding and non-breeding periods. Breeding males had larger, but not more, GnRH-ir cells than non-breeding birds. The plasticity of the GnRH system was associated with local climate, such that the two populations exhibited asynchronous changes in GnRH-ir despite experiencing identical photoperiod conditions. Our results demonstrate that tropical birds can exhibit neural changes similar to those exhibited in higher latitude birds. However, these tropical populations appear to be using supplementary cues (e.g., rainfall, temperature, food availability) in a similar way to higher latitude species using an initial predictive cue (photoperiod). These results raise questions about the evolution of reliance upon photoperiodism and the strength of reproductive responses to other environmental cues in congeners from higher latitudes. The ability to respond to a multitude of environmental cues might be part of the ancestral condition, and the subsequent obligate photoperiodism in high-latitude congeners could reflect a loss of flexibility in response to environmental signals.

The master circadian clock located within the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is necessary for the circadian rhythm of glucocorticoid (GC) release. The pathways by which the SCN sustains rhythmic GC release remain unclear. We studied the circadian regulation of cortisol release in the behaviorally split golden hamster, in which the single bout of circadian locomotor activity splits into two bouts approximately 12 h apart after exposing the animals to constant light conditions. We show that unsplit control hamsters present a single peak of cortisol release that is concomitant with a single peak of ACTH release. In contrast, split hamsters show two peaks of cortisol release that are approximately 12 h appart and are appropriately phased to each locomotor activity bout but surprisingly do not rely on rhythmic release of ACTH. Our results are consistent with a model in which the circadian pacemaker within the SCN regulates the circadian release of GC via input to the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and via a second regulatory pathway, which likely involves sympathetic innervation of the adrenal and can operate even in the absence of ACTH circadian rhythmic release. Furthermore, we show that although the overall 24-h cortisol output in split hamsters is lower than in unsplit controls, split hamsters release constant low levels of ACTH. This result suggests that the timing, rather than the absolute amount, of cortisol release is more critical for the induction of negative feedback effects that regulate the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis.