Zinc cadmium sulfide (ZnxCd1-xS) thin films grown through chemical bath deposition are used in chalcopyrite solar cells as the buffer layer between the n-type zinc oxide and the p-type light absorbing chalcopyrite film. To optimize energetic band alignment and optical absorption, advanced solar cell architectures require the ability to manipulate x as a function of distance from the absorber-ZnCdS interface. Herein, we investigate the fundamental factors that govern the evolution of the composition as a function of depth in the film. By changing the initial concentrations of Zn and Cd salts in the bath, the entire range of overall compositions ranging from primarily cubic ZnS to primarily hexagonal CdS could be deposited. However, films are inhomogeneous and x varies significantly as function of distance from the film-substrate interface. Films with high overall Zn concentration (x > 0.5) exhibit a Cd-rich layer near the film-substrate interface because Cd is more reactive than Zn. This layer is typically beneath a nearly pure ZnS film that forms after the Cd-rich layers are deposited and Cd is depleted in the bath. In films with high overall Cd concentration (x < 0.5) the Zn concentration rises towards the film's surface. Fortunately, these gradients are favorable for solar cells based on low band gap chalcopyrite films.
Titanium alloys provide excellent corrosion resistance and favorable mechanical properties well suited for a variety of biomaterial applications. The native oxide surface on titanium alloys has been shown to be less than ideal and surface modification is often needed. Previously, an optimized anodization process was shown to form a porous phosphorus‐enhanced anatase oxide layer on commercially pure Ti grade 4. The anodized layer was shown to improve osseointegration and to reduce bacteria attachment when photocatalytically activated with UVA preillumination. The primary objective of the present study was to create a similar phosphorus‐enhanced anatase oxide layer on series of titanium alloys including commercially pure Ti grade 4, Ti‐6Al‐7Nb, Ti‐6Al‐4V ELI, alpha + beta Ti‐15Mo, beta Ti‐15Mo, and Ti‐35Nb‐7Zr‐5Ta. Phosphorus‐enhanced anatase oxide layers were formed on each titanium substrate. Anatase formation was shown to generally increase with oxide thickness, except on substrate alloys containing niobium. Phosphorus uptake was shown to be dependent on the titanium alloy chemistry or microstructure. Anodized layers formed on beta‐structured titanium alloys revealed the lowest phosphorus uptake and the most nanosized surface porosity. A methylene blue degradation assay showed anodized layers on commercially pure Ti and both Ti‐15Mo alloys to exhibit the highest levels of photocatalytic activity. Given the range of mechanical properties available with the commercially pure Ti and Ti‐15Mo alloys, the results of this study indicate the benefits of phosphorus‐enhanced anatase oxide coatings may be applicable to a wide variety of biomaterial applications.
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